Association between changes on the Negative Symptom Assessment scale (NSA-16) and measures of functional outcome in schizophrenia
Introduction
Schizophrenia and schizoaffective disorder together have been identified as the fifth leading cause of disability world-wide (Jaeger et al., 2003). It has been estimated that the costs for treatment and loss in productivity associated with schizophrenia are as high as 60 billion dollars annually (Wyatt et al., 1995, Souêtre, 1997, Trauer et al., 1998) with approximately 46 billion dollars of this total associated with loss in productivity (Jaeger et al., 2003). Multiple domains of functional outcome are impaired for individuals with schizophrenia including performance of independent living skills, social functioning, and occupational/educational performance and attainment (Sharma and Antonova, 2003) Most patients require some public funding for support, and only 10 to 20% of patients are able to sustain full- or part-time competitive employment (Anthony and Blanch, 1987, Mueser et al., 2001, McGurk and Mueser, 2004). Improving functional outcomes for this group of individuals is a significant mental health priority.
While medication treatments are effective in improving the positive symptoms of schizophrenia, functional outcomes remain poor for those with schizophrenia compared with the general population (Sharma and Antonova, 2003, McGurk and Mueser, 2004). In contrast to the positive symptoms of the illness, negative symptoms are more difficult to treat and often persist long after positive symptoms have resolved or been substantially reduced. Significantly, negative symptoms have been found to be more predictive of concurrent and future functioning in the community than positive symptoms (Mueser et al., 1990, Breier et al., 1991, Velligan et al., 1997, Ho et al., 1998, Milev et al., 2005). In some studies, many cross-sectional in nature, cognition has been found to be a stronger predictor of functional outcome than negative symptoms (Green, 1996, Velligan et al., 1997, Puig et al., 2008). However, in a study of first episode patients followed for 7 years, negative symptoms predicted the majority of the variance in functional outcome over time (Milev et al., 2005). Moreover, negative symptoms and cognition explained shared variance in functional outcome.
In this article, we examine whether change in negative symptoms over time predicts change in functional outcomes over time. If it can be established that a decrease in negative symptoms improves community outcomes, and that improvements in negative symptoms are associated with improved community functioning over and above improvements due to changes in positive symptoms, this would suggest that negative symptoms are important targets for pharmacotherapy and psychosocial treatments, and that they should be the focus of more investigative efforts. We hypothesized that improvements in negative symptoms over time would be significantly correlated with improvements in functional outcomes over time. In the present study, we explored correlations among changes in positive symptoms, negative symptoms, and functional outcomes over a 6-month period. Functional outcomes included global level of social and occupational functioning, an interview-based measure of quality of life, and a performance-based measure of functional capacity.
Section snippets
Subjects
Participants were 166 outpatients with schizophrenia or schizoaffective disorder recruited from community mental health centers for enrollment in a variety of outpatient medication and psychosocial treatment studies. Of the total subject pool, 125 received both baseline and 6-month comprehensive assessments of symptomatology and functional outcomes. Diagnoses were based upon the Structured Clinical Interview for Diagnosis (SCID) for the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders,
Results
Means for variables at baseline and 6 months, change scores and effect sizes are presented in Table 1. According to Cohen's conventions, effect sizes were medium for the SOFAS and small for the remainder of the variables. We examined whether change scores over time differed for different ethnicities, and no comparisons were significant (all P's > 0.20). Partial correlation coefficients between key measures at 6 months controlling for baseline values are presented in Table 2. Note that there were
Discussion
Results indicated that improvements in negative symptoms were correlated with improvements in a global measure of functional outcome, quality of life and functional capacity. With respect to the issue of causation, analyses support that changes in negative symptoms drove changes in global functional outcome. This finding may have implications for treatment. It may be possible that treatments targeted at improving negative symptoms may reduce the significant functional disability associated with
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