Elsevier

Child Abuse & Neglect

Volume 36, Issue 3, March 2012, Pages 203-209
Child Abuse & Neglect

Assessment and treatment of adolescent sexual offenders: Implications of recent research on generalist versus specialist explanations

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2011.11.003Get rights and content

Abstract

Objective

Adolescent sex offenders (ASOs) are commonly considered a special kind of juvenile offender, with distinct risk and etiological factors from other adolescent offenders. However, a growing body of research suggests that ASOs are more similar to other adolescent non-sex offenders than they are different (e.g., Awad et al., 1984, Elliott, 1994, France and Hudson, 1993). The purpose of the present article is to review recent literature pertaining to the distinction between generalist and specialist adolescent sex offenders (ASOs).

Method

This article summarizes the findings from Seto and Lalumière's (2010) meta-analysis on theoretically derived risk and etiological factors for adolescent sexual offending. Based on these findings, recommendations for the assessment and treatment of this population are made.

Results

The results of Seto and Lalumière's (2010) meta-analysis suggests the majority of ASOs are generalist offenders who are similar to other adolescent non-sex offenders, while a minority of ASOs are specialist offenders, who have unique risk and etiological factors including childhood sexual abuse/maltreatment and atypical sexual interests.

Conclusions

A clear distinction has been shown between generalist ASOs and specialist ASOs. Assessment measures and treatment targets geared toward one of these groups may be less effective with the other group, which means that this distinction is clinically important. It is expected that if treatment is matched to ASO type, sexual and nonsexual recidivism will be reduced and positive changes in other clinically important areas will be evident.

Introduction

Sexual offending is considered one of the most heinous forms of criminal behavior and shocks the public conscience. Even more disturbing is when these behaviors are committed by adolescents. Much of the research and clinical literature on sexual offending has focused on adults. Yet, adolescent sexual offenders (ASOs) account for 12.5% of all arrests for rape and 14% of all arrests for other sexual offenses (United States Department of Justice, 2009). Additionally, using data obtained from the National Youth Survey, Weinrott (1996) found that 3% of youth in the general population have had or have tried to have sexual relations with a non-consenting victim. Furthermore, up to half of adult sexual offenders admit that they committed their first sexual offense as an adolescent (Abel et al., 1993, Knight and Prentky, 1993, Rasmussen, 2004). These facts highlight the need to develop a greater understanding of ASOs in order to effectively assess, treat and manage this population.

There are currently two main perspectives to explain adolescent sexual offending. First, the generalist perspective suggests that the crimes committed by ASOs are a manifestation of general delinquent tendencies, in which sexual offenses constitute only a part of their antisocial and criminal behavior (e.g., France & Hudson, 1993). This perspective suggests that ASOs are more similar to other adolescent non-sex offenders than they are different, and thus they share risk factors, as well as assessment and treatment needs. These risk factors include antisocial personality traits, antisocial attitudes and beliefs, associations with delinquent peers, and substance use (see Quinsey, Skilling, Lalumière, & Craig, 2004). A central implication of the generalist perspective is that the same assessment tools and treatment models that have been developed for juvenile delinquents would be valid for ASOs.

Second, the specialist perspective suggests that ASOs differ from other adolescent offenders, and different factors explain sexual offending compared to nonsexual offending. Therefore, ASOs require different assessment tools and treatment models. Indeed, the National Adolescent Perpetrator Network, an organization of professionals involved with ASOs, concluded that, “…sexually abusive youth require a specialized response from the justice system which is different from other delinquent populations” (1993, p. 86). In the special issue, the task force outlined ways in which adolescent sexual offenders should be treated differently in terms of legal and clinical responses.

Empirical research on this generalist versus specialist distinction is mixed. Some studies suggest that the specialist explanation is more correct, citing evidence regarding sexual abuse history, sexual deviancy and atypical sexual development, as well as early family and environmental factors. For example, Beauregard, Lussier, and Proulx (2004) found that proclivity for rape was positively correlated with a sexually inappropriate family environment, which included witnessing incestuous or promiscuous sexual behavior within the home during childhood or adolescence. Additionally, Robinson, Rouleau, and Madrigano (1997) found that ASOs showed significantly more arousal to deviant stimuli involving coercive sex and children compared to a non-offender control group. Lastly, Jespersen, Lalumière, and Seto (2009) found that adult sex offenders were 3.36 times more likely to experience sexual abuse as a child, than a comparative sample of non-sex offenders.

Conversely, other studies suggest that the generalist perspective is more correct, citing evidence regarding the many similarities found between ASOs and other adolescent offenders, as well as evidence gathered from recidivism studies. For example, Awad, Saunders, and Levine (1984) found that ASOs were more similar to other adolescent non-sex offenders than they were different on variables such as psychiatric history, past delinquency/violence, inadequate parenting, school misconduct and parent–child attachment. Furthermore, ASOs are significantly more likely to be re-arrested for a nonsexual crime rather than a sexual offense; in fact, only 10–15% of ASOs continue sexual offending into adulthood (Caldwell, 2002).

Of course, these perspectives are not mutually exclusive. Both perspectives could be true, such that the ASO population is a mixture of generalist and specialist offenders and, thus, individual study findings depend on the composition of the ASOs in the sample. Butler and Seto (2002), for example, distinguished between 22 ASOs who had only committed sexual offenses (sex-only) and 10 ASOs who had committed sexual as well as nonsexual offenses (sex-plus). Sex-plus ASOs were more similar to other adolescent offenders than sex-only ASOs on measures of risk to reoffend and treatment needs.

The purpose of the present article is to summarize the results of a recent meta-analysis conducted by Seto and Lalumière (2010) that will assist in bridging the gap between the generalist and specialist perspectives, as well as to highlight the assessment and treatment implications of this generalist versus specialist distinction.

Section snippets

Seto and Lalumière (2010) meta-analysis

Seto and Lalumière examined 59 studies that directly compared ASOs and other adolescent offenders on theoretically derived variables. These variables included offender age, conduct problems, criminal involvement, antisocial tendencies, family problems, substance abuse, childhood maltreatment and exposure to violence, interpersonal problems, cognitive abilities, sexuality, and psychopathology. The meta-analysis included a total sample of 3,855 male ASOs and 13,393 male adolescent non-sex

Risk/needs assessment of ASOs

Extensive research has identified a large set of risk factors associated with sexual recidivism among adult sexual offenders (Hanson and Bussière, 1998, Hanson and Morton-Bourgon, 2005). Broadly, these risk factors can be organized into two primary risk dimensions: (1) general antisocial orientation (criminal history, antisocial personality, antisocial attitudes and beliefs, etc.), and (2) sexual deviance (atypical sexual interests, excessive sexual preoccupation, etc.). Adult sexual offenders

Treatment of ASOs

Once a comprehensive assessment of risk to reoffend and clinical needs has been conducted, individualized intervention options need to be considered. Consistent with Andrews and Bonta's (2010) risk principle, more intensive services should be reserved for higher-risk offenders. Those who pose a relatively low risk to reoffend may require only a period of supervision in the community, whereas those at high risk may require long-term residential treatment.

For an ASO who has been identified as a

Treatment targets

An important element of treatment is the selection of treatment targets. Childhood sexual abuse and other forms of childhood victimization are significant antecedents of sexual offending by adolescents, and therefore may need to be addressed in treatment. However, childhood victimization is a historical fact that cannot be changed. Instead, problems associated with childhood victimization may be suitable treatment targets, including relationship functioning, atypical sexual arousal, and

Prevention of adolescent sexual offending

The above risk assessment and treatment options detailed for ASOs assumes that an adolescent has already committed at least one sexual offense. However, the results of the Seto and Lalumière (2010) meta-analysis highlight risk factors for sexual offending that can be targeted before an offense has been committed. Within the context of child welfare work, a youth who has been found to be sexually abused may be at greater risk of reactive sexual behavior in the short-term and sexual offending

Conclusions

The efficient and effective assessment and treatment of ASOs is vital to the administration of criminal justice, public safety, and offender rehabilitation. Research suggests that many ASOs are generalist offenders who may be at risk for other forms of delinquency as well, whereas a minority of ASOs are specialist offenders who are at risk primarily for further sexual offending. Assessment measures and treatment approaches geared for one group are less efficient and effective for the other

References (70)

  • D.A. Andrews et al.

    The psychology of criminal conduct

    (2010)
  • Association for the Treatment of Sexual Abusers (ATSA) Professional Issues Committee

    Practice standards and guidelines for the evaluation, treatment, and management of adult male sexual abusers

    (2005)
  • G.A. Awad et al.

    A clinical study of male adolescent sex offenders

    International Journal of Offender Treatment and Comparative Criminology

    (1984)
  • K.E. Aytes et al.

    Cognitive/behavioural treatment for sexual offenders: An examination of recidivism

    Sex Abuse

    (2001)
  • C. Barton et al.

    Generalizing treatment effects of functional family therapy: Three replications

    The American Journal of Family Therapy

    (1985)
  • E. Beauregard et al.

    An exploration of developmental factors related to deviant sexual preferences among adult rapists

    Sexual Abuse: A Journal of Research and Treatment

    (2004)
  • J.V. Becker et al.

    The psychophysiological assessment of juvenile offenders

  • C.M. Borduin et al.

    A randomized clinical trial of multisystemic therapy with juvenile sex offenders: Effects on youth social ecology and criminal activity

    Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology

    (2009)
  • M.F. Caldwell

    What we do not know about juvenile sexual reoffense risk

    Child Maltreatment

    (2002)
  • M.Y. Carpentier et al.

    Randomized trial of treatment for children with sexual behavior problems: Ten-year follow-up

    Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology

    (2006)
  • C.M. Chu et al.

    Adolescent sexual offenders: The relationship between typology ad recidivism

    Sexual Journal: A Journal of Research and Treatment

    (2010)
  • R.J.W. Clift et al.

    Discriminative and predictive validity of the penile plethysmography in adolescent sex offenders

    Sexual Abuse: A Journal of Research and Treatment

    (2009)
  • N.M. Curtis et al.

    Multisystemic treatment: A meta-analysis of outcome studies

    Journal of Family Psychology

    (2004)
  • E.L. Daleiden et al.

    The sexual histories and fantasies of youthful males: A comparison of sexual offending, nonsexual offending, and nonoffending groups

    Sexual Abuse

    (1998)
  • D.S. Elliott

    Serious violent offenders: Onset, developmental course and termination

    Criminology

    (1994)
  • Flitton, A. (1999). The utility of the Rorschach Inkblot Method in the assessment of adolescent sex offenders....
  • K.G. France et al.

    The conduct disorders and the juvenile sex offender

  • R.K. Hanson et al.

    Predicting relapse: A meta-analysis of sexual offender recidivism studies

    Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology

    (1998)
  • R.K. Hanson et al.

    Report of the Collaborative Outcome Project on the effectiveness of psychological treatment for sex offenders

    Sexual Abuse: A Journal of Research and Treatment

    (2002)
  • R.K. Hanson et al.

    The characteristics of persistent sexual offenders: A meta-analysis of recidivism studies

    Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology

    (2005)
  • R.K. Hanson et al.

    The accuracy of recidivism risk assessments for sexual offenders: A meta-analysis of 118 prediction studies

    Psychological Assessment

    (2009)
  • S.W. Henggeler et al.

    Multisystemic treatment of antisocial behavior in children and adolescents

    (1998)
  • J.A. Hunter et al.

    Ethical and legal issues in the assessment and treatment of juvenile sex offenders

    Child Maltreatment

    (1998)
  • M.P. Kafka et al.

    A DSM-IV Axis I comorbidity study of males (N 120) with paraphilias and paraphilia-related disorders

    Sexual Abuse: A Journal of Research and Treatment

    (2002)
  • R.A. Knight et al.

    Exploring characteristics for classifying juvenile sex offenders

  • Cited by (33)

    • Therapeutic change in adolescents sexual offenders

      2023, Revue Europeenne de Psychologie Appliquee
    • Juvenile Sex Offenders

      2016, Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Clinics of North America
      Citation Excerpt :

      The largest differences found were with respect to atypical sexual interests and sexual abuse history. The investigators suggested that although adolescent sex offenders and general delinquents share many of the same risk factors for offending, to understand why an adolescent commits a sex offense rather than a nonsexual offense, special factors, including a history of sexual abuse, exposure to sex or pornography, and atypical sexual interests, need to be considered.41 Several studies of adult sex offenders with paraphilic and nonparaphilic deviant behavior have indicated high rates of comorbid psychiatric disorders, especially mood, anxiety, substance abuse, and personality disorders.42–45

    View all citing articles on Scopus
    View full text