Buscar en
Endocrinología y Nutrición
Toda la web
Inicio Endocrinología y Nutrición Enfermedad cardiovascular y grasas: “amigo o villano”
Información de la revista
Vol. 49. Núm. 5.
Páginas 145-167 (Mayo 2002)
Compartir
Compartir
Descargar PDF
Más opciones de artículo
Vol. 49. Núm. 5.
Páginas 145-167 (Mayo 2002)
Acceso a texto completo
Enfermedad cardiovascular y grasas: “amigo o villano”
Cardiovascular disease and fats: friend o foe
Visitas
7018
M.A. Rubio
Autor para correspondencia
marubio@futurnet.es

Correspondencia: Dr. M.A. Rubio. Unidad de Nutrición Clínica y Dietética. Servicio de Endocrinología y Nutrición. Hospital Clínico Universitario San Carlos. Martín Lagos, s/n. 28040 Madrid.
Unidad de Nutrición Clínica y Dietética. Servicio de Endocrinología y Nutrición. Hospital Clínico Universitario San Carlos. Madrid
Este artículo ha recibido
Información del artículo

Los ácidos grasos y el colesterol de la dieta son los principales determinantes de las enfermedades cardiovasculares. En los últimos 25 años hemos cambiado nuestro patrón alimentario tradicional hacia una dieta con mayor contenido total de grasa, pero de peor calidad nutricional, lo que repercutirá negativamente en el futuro sobre nuestro estado de salud.

En esta revisión se repasa los conocimientos actuales que se tienen acerca de los diferentes ácidos grasos y del colesterol de la dieta sobre el riesgo cardiovascular. La diferente acción hipercolesterolemiante y trombogénica de los ácidos grasos saturados ha recobrado interés por la irrupción en el mercado de alimentos elaborados con aceites tropicales (coco, palma, palmiste) muy ricos en grasas saturadas. Algo parecido ha sucedido con el empleo de aceites parcial o totalmente hidrogenados en la elaboración de numerosos alimentos preparados (repostería, panadería, cereales de desayuno, cremas de untar, aperitivos, congelados precocinados, etc.), que se ofertan ante la demanda creciente del consumidor por este tipo de productos. La hidrogenación de las grasas genera la formación de ácidos grasos trans, cuya acción sobre el metabolismo de los lípidos es más perjudicial que la grasa saturada: no sólo incrementa las concentraciones del colesterol ligado a las lipoproteínas de baja densidad (cLDL), sino que disminuye las de alta densidad (cHDL), aumenta las concentraciones de triglicéridos, fibrinógeno y de la lipoproteína (a).

En el otro lado de la balanza todavía existe un consumo elevado de grasas insaturadas, en especial de ácidos grasos monoinsaturados procedentes del aceite de oliva. Además de su conocida acción neutral sobre el metabolismo lipídico, es probable que gran parte de sus efectos beneficiosos residan en los componentes minoritarios del aceite de oliva (compuestos fenólicos) cuyos efectos beneficiosos sobre el desarrollo de la arteriosclerosis van más allá que su notable acción antioxidante. Entre la grasa poliinsaturada, el consumo de ácidos grasos ω-3, procedente del pescado o de los alimentos con elevado contenido en α- linolénico (nueces, aceite de soja, lino o borraja), su acción principal guarda relación con la capacidad antiarrítmica responsable de la disminución de los episodios de muerte súbita. Sin embargo, la acción preventiva de estos ácidos grasos sobre nuevos episodios cardiovasculares todavía es controvertida.

Las acciones del colesterol dietético sobre el riesgo cardiovascular son menores de lo que cabría esperar porque su absorción depende de varios factores, no sólo dietéticos (p. ej., interferencia con fitosteroles), sino también de factores genéticos implicados en la absorción o transporte del colesterol, como los genotipos de la apoproteína E.

La tecnología industrial está buscando nuevas combinaciones de ácidos grasos que atiendan a la demanda de nuevos alimentos por parte de los consumidores. Frente a las dudas que pueden surgir bajo un etiquetado de “aceite vegetal™, como sinónimo de grasa saludable, podemos seleccionar todavía patrones alimentarios saludables, basados en alimentos procedentes de la tierra –verduras y frutas frescas, cereales y legumbres, frutos secos, aceite de oliva…– y reducir el consumo de carnes grasas, lácteos enteros, azúcares refinados, productos de repostería y alimentos precocinados congelados.

Palabras clave:
Acidos grasos
Colesterol
Acidos grasos trans
Acidos grasos ω-3
Aceite de oliva
Enfermedad cardiovascular

Dietary fatty acids and cholesterol are the main determinants of cardiovascular disease. In the last 25 years our traditional dietary pattern has tended to include higher total fat content and lower nutritional quality, which will have negative effects on our state of health.

In this review, we provide an overview of current knowledge on the influence of different dietary fatty acids and cholesterol on cardiovascular risk. There has been renewed interest in the different hypercholesterolemic and thrombogenic actions of saturated fatty acids because of the irruption on the market of foods prepared with tropical oils (coconut, palm, kernel), which are very rich in saturated fat. Partial or completely hydrogenated fats are also involved in the preparation of numerous prepared foods (confectionery, bread and cakes, breakfast cereals, spreads, snacks, frozen dishes, etc.) because of consumers' growing demand for these types of product. Hydrogenated fats generate the formation of trans fatty acids, whose action on lipid metabolism is more harmful than that of saturated fat: they not only increase concentrations of low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDLc) but also diminish concentrations of high density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDLc) and increase concentrations of triglycerides, fibrinogen and Lp(a).

At the other end of the spectrum, consumption of unsaturated fats, mainly monounsaturated fatty acids from olive oil, remains high. In addition to their well-known neutral action on lipid metabolism, many of their beneficial effects probably reside in the minority components of olive oil (phenolic compounds). The beneficial effects of these compounds on the development of arteriosclerosis go beyond their remarkable antioxidant action. Among the polyunsaturated fats, ω-3 fatty acids, derived from fish or from foods with a high α–linolenic acid content (nuts, soy, linseed or borrago oils) have mainly antiarrhythmic effects, which are responsible for the decrease in episodes of sudden cardiac death. However, the preventive effects of these fatty acids on new cardiovascular events remain controversial.

The actions of dietary cholesterol on cardiovascular risks are lower than expected because their absorption depends on several factors. Some of these factors are dietary (interference with phytosterols, for example) but genetic factors, such as the apoprotein E genotype, are also involved in the absorption or transport of cholesterol.

Industrial biotechnology is looking for new combinations of fatty acids that would meet consumers' demand for new foods. Despite the doubts that can arise when faced with a label of vegetable oil, as a synonym for healthy fat, we can still select healthy dietary patterns, based on foods produced by the soil: fresh fruit and vegetables, cereals and pulses, tree nuts and olive oil. We can also reduce our intake of fatty meats, whole dairy products, refined sugars, confectionery, and frozen dishes.

Key words:
Fatty acids
Cholesterol
Trans fatty acids
ù-3 fatty acids
Olive oil
Cardiovascular disease
El Texto completo está disponible en PDF
Bibliografía
[1.]
C.H. Ritchie, G. Marañón.
Alimentación y regímenes alimentarios.
[2.]
W.C. Willet.
Diet and cancer.
The Oncologist, 5 (2000), pp. 393-404
[3.]
P.L. Zock.
Dietary fats and cancer.
Curr Opin Lipidol, 12 (2001), pp. 5-10
[4.]
W.C. Willet.
Diet and cancer: one view at the start of the millenium.
Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev, 10 (2001), pp. 3-8
[5.]
W.C. Willet.
Is dietary fat a major determinant of body fat?.
Am J Clin Nutr, 67 (1998), pp. 556-562
[6.]
G.A. Bray, B.M. Popkin.
Dietary fat intakes does affect obesity!.
Am J Clin Nutr, 68 (1998), pp. 1157-1173
[7.]
W.C. Willet.
Dietary fat and obesity: an unconvincing relation.
Am J Clin Nutr, 68 (1998), pp. 1149-1150
[8.]
H.C. Mc Gill, J. Arias-Stella, L.M. Carbonell.
General findings of the International Atherosclerosis Project.
Lab Invest, 18 (1968), pp. 498-502
[9.]
A. Keys.
Coronary heart disease in Seven Countries.
Circulation, 41 (1974), pp. 1-211
[10.]
A. Keys, A. Menotti, M.J. Karvonen, C. Aravanis, H. Blackburn, R. Buzima, et al.
The diet and 15-year death rate in the seven countries study.
Am J Epidemiol, 124 (1986), pp. 903-915
[11.]
W.M. Verschuren, D.R. Jacobs, B.P. Bloemberg, D. Krohmhout, A. Menotti, C. Aravanis.
Serum cholesterol and long-term coronary heart disease mortality in different cultures. Twentyfive year follow-up of the Seven Countries Study.
JAMA, 274 (1995), pp. 131-136
[12.]
M.G. Hertog, D. Kromhout, C. Aravanis, H. Blackburn, R. Buzina, F. Fidanza, et al.
Flavonoid intake and long-term risk of coronary heart disease and cancer in the Seven Countries study.
Arch Intern Med, 155 (1995), pp. 381-386
[13.]
A. Kagan, B.R. Harris, W.J. Winkelstein, K.G. Johnson, H. Kato, S.L. Shyme, et al.
Epidemiological studies of coronary heart disease and stroke in Japanese men living in Japan, Hawaii and California: demographic, physical, dietary and biochemical characteristics.
J Chronic Dis, 27 (1974), pp. 345-364
[14.]
D.L. Mc Gee, D.M. Reed, K. Yano, A. Kagan, J. Tillotson.
Tenyear incidence of coronary heart disease in the Honolulu Heart Program: relationship to nutrient intake.
Am J Epidemiol, 119 (1984), pp. 667-676
[15.]
R.B. Shekelle, A. MacMillan Schryock, O. Paul, M. Lepper, J. Stamler, S. Liu, et al.
Diet, serum cholesterol, and death from coronary heart disease: the Western Electric Study.
N Engl J Med, 304 (1981), pp. 65-70
[16.]
L.H. Kushi, R.A. Lew, F.J. Stare, C.R. Ellison, M. Lozy, G. Bourke, et al.
Diet and 20-year mortality from coronary heart disease. The Ireland-Boston Diet-Heart Study.
N Engl J Med, 312 (1985), pp. 811-818
[17.]
W.B. Kannel, W.P. Castelli, T. Gordon, P.M. McNamara.
Serum cholesterol, lipoproteins and the risk of coronary heart disease. The Framinghan Study.
Ann Intern Med, 74 (1971), pp. 1-12
[18.]
J.F. Ascaso.
Antioxidantes y enfermedades cardiovasculares.
Endocrinología y Nutrición, 47 (2000), pp. 191-196
[19.]
J. Rubiés Prat.
Los antioxidantes: vitaminas y flavonoides.
Clin Invest Arterioscler, 12 (2000), pp. 45-48
[20.]
J.A. Páramo, M.J. Orbe, J.A. Rodríguez.
Papel de los antioxidantes en la prevención de la enfermedad cardiovascular.
Med Clin (Barc), 116 (2001), pp. 629-635
[21.]
A. Keys, T.J. Anderson, F. Grande.
Serum cholesterol response to dietary fat.
Lancet, 1 (1957), pp. 787
[22.]
A. Keys, T.J. Anderson, F. Grande.
Serum cholesterol response to changes in the diet: IV. Particular saturated fatty acids in the diet.
Metabolism, 14 (1965), pp. 776-787
[23.]
E.H. Ahrens, J. Hirsch, W. Insull.
The influence of dietary fats on serum lipid leveles in man.
Lancet, 1 (1957), pp. 943-953
[24.]
D.M. Hegsted, R.B. McGandy, M.L. Myers, F.J. Stare.
Quantitative effects of dietary fat on serum cholesterol in man.
Am J Clin Nutr, 17 (1965), pp. 281-295
[25.]
R.P. Mensink, M.B. Katan.
Effects of dietary fatty acids on serum lipids and lipoproteins: a meta-analysis of 27 trials.
Arterioescler Thromb, 12 (1991), pp. 911-919
[26.]
P.M. Kris-Etherton, S. Yu.
Individual fatty acids effects on plasma lipids and lipoproteins: human studies.
Am J Clin Nutr, 65 (1997), pp. 1628-1644
[27.]
J. Derr, P.M. Kris-Etherton, T.A. Pearson, F.H. Seligson.
The role of fatty acid saturation on plasma lipids, lipoproteins and apolipoproteins (II). The plasma total and low density lipoprotein response of individual fatty acids.
Metabolism, 42 (1993), pp. 130-134
[28.]
S.M. Grundy, M.A. Denke.
Dietary influences on serum lipids and lipoproteins.
J Lipid Res, 31 (1990), pp. 1149-1172
[29.]
R.A. Vogel, M.C. Corrett, G.D. Plotnick.
Effect of a single highfat meal on endothelial function in healthy subjects.
Am J Cardiol, 79 (1997), pp. 350-354
[30.]
M.J.A. Williams, W.H.F. Sutherland, M.P. McCormick, S.A. de Jong, R.J. Walker, G.T. Wilkins.
Impaired endothelial function following a meal rich in used cooking fat.
J Am Coll Cardiol, 34 (1999), pp. 140-145
[31.]
S.A. Hashim, A. Arteaga, T.B. Van Itallie.
Effect of saturated medium-chain triglycerides on serum lipids in man.
Lancet, 1 (1960), pp. 1150-1158
[32.]
N.B. Cater, H.J. Heller, M.A. Denke.
Comparison of the effects of medium-chain triacylglycerols, palm oil and oleic acid sunflower oil on plasma triacylglycerol fatty acids and lipid and lipoprotein concentrations in humans.
Am J Clin Nutr, 65 (1997), pp. 41-45
[33.]
M. Denke, S.M. Grundy.
Comparison of effects of lauric acid and palmitic acid on plasma lipids and lipoproteins.
Am J Clin Nutr, 56 (1992), pp. 895-898
[34.]
R.P. Mensink.
Effects of individual saturated fatty acids on serum lipid and lipoprotein concentration.
Am J Clin Nutr, 57 (1993), pp. 1115-1145
[35.]
P.L. Zock, J.H.M. De Vries, M.B. Katan.
Impact of miristic acid versus palmitic acid on serum lipid and lipoprotein levels in healthy women and men.
Arterioscler Thromb, 14 (1994), pp. 567-575
[36.]
K. Sundran, K.C. Hayes, O.H. Siru.
Dietary palmitic acid results in lower serum cholesterol that does a lauric-miristic acid combination in normolipemic humans.
Am J Clin Nutr, 59 (1994), pp. 841-846
[37.]
A. Bonanome, S.M. Grundy.
Effect of dietary stearic acid on plasma cholesterol and lipoprotein levels.
N Engl J Med, 318 (1988), pp. 1244-1248
[38.]
S.M. Grundy.
Influence of stearic acid on cholesterol metabolism relative to other long-chain fatty acids.
Am J Clin Nutr, 60 (1994), pp. S986-S990
[39.]
S. Yu, J. Derr, T.D. Etherton, P.M. Kris-Etherton.
Plasma cholesterol-predictive equations demonstrate that stearic acid is neutral and monounsaturated fatty acids are hypocholesterolemic.
Am J Clin Nutr, 61 (1995), pp. 1129-1139
[40.]
S.K. Rhee, A.J. Kayani, A. Ciszek, J.T. Brenna.
Desaturation and interconversion of dietary stearic and palmitic acids in human plasma and lipoproteins.
Am J Clin Nutr, 65 (1997), pp. 451-458
[41.]
K.A. Mitropoulos, G.J. Miller, J.C. Martin, B.E.A. Reeves, J. Cooper.
Dietary fat induces changes in factor VII coagulant activity through effects on plasma free stearic acid concentration.
Arterioscler Thromb, 14 (1994), pp. 214-222
[42.]
T. Tholstrup, K. Andreasen, B. Sanström.
Acute effect of high meal rich in either stearic or myristic acid on hemostatic factors in healthy young men.
Am J Clin Nutr, 64 (1996), pp. 168-176
[43.]
W.E. Connor.
Harbingers of coronary heart disease: dietary saturated fatty acids and cholesterol Is chocolate bening because of its stearic acid content?.
Am J Clin Nutr, 70 (1999), pp. 951-952
[44.]
T.A.B. Sanders, F.R. Oakley, J.A. Cooper, G.J. Miller.
Influence of a stearic acid-rich structured triacylglycerol on postprandial lipemia, factor VII concentrations, and fibrinolytic activity in healthy subjects.
Am J Clin Nutr, 73 (2001), pp. 715-721
[45.]
F.B. Hu, M.J. Stampfer, J. Manson, A. Ascherio, G.A. Colditz, F.E. Speizer, et al.
Dietary saturated fats and their food sources in relation to the risk of coronary heart disease.
Am J Clin Nutr, 70 (1999), pp. 1001-1008
[46.]
G. Watts, P. Jackson, V. Burke, B. Lewis.
Dietary fatty acids and progression of coronary artery disease in men.
Am J Clin Nutr, 64 (1996), pp. 202-209
[47.]
R.M. Dogherthy, M.A. Allman, J.M. Iacono.
Effects of diets containing high or low amounts of stearic acid on plasma lipoprotein fractions and fecal fatty acid excretion of men.
Am J Clin Nutr, 61 (1995), pp. 1120-1128
[48.]
G.M. Wardlaw, J.T. Snook, S. Park, P.K. Patel, F.C. Pendley, M.S. Lee, et al.
Relative effects on serum lipids and apolipoproteins of a caprenin-rich diet compared with diets rich in palm oil/palm-kernel oil or butter.
Am J Clin Nutr, 61 (1995), pp. 535-542
[49.]
N.B. Cater, M.A. Denke.
Behenic acid is a cholesterol-raising saturated fatty acid in humans.
Am J Clin Nutr, 73 (2001), pp. 41-44
[50.]
H.N. Ginsberg, S.L. Barr, A. Gilbert, W. Karmally, R. Deckelbaum, K. Kaplan, et al.
Reduction of plasma cholesterol levels in men on an American Heart Association step 1 diet with added monounsaturated fat.
N Engl J Med, 322 (1990), pp. 574-579
[51.]
F.H. Mattson, S.M. Grundy.
Comparison of effects of dietary saturated, monounsaturated and polyunsaturated fatty acids on plasma lipids and lipoproteins in man.
J Lipid Res, 26 (1985), pp. 194-202
[52.]
P. Mata, L.A. Álvarez-Sala, M.J. Rubio, J. Nuño, M. De Oya.
Effects of long term monounsaturated versus polyunsaturated enriched diets on lipoproteins in healthy men and women.
Am J Clin Nutr, 55 (1992), pp. 846-850
[53.]
P. Mata, J.A. Garrido, J.M. Ordovás, E. Blázquez, L.A. Álvarez-Sala, M.J. Rubio, et al.
Effect of dietary monounsaturated fatty acids on plasma lipoproteins and apolipoproteins in women.
Am J Clin Nutr, 56 (1992), pp. 77-83
[54.]
D.M. Colquhoun, D. Moores, S.M. Somerset, J.A. Humphries.
Comparison of the effect on lipoproteins and apoproteins of a diet high in monounsaturated fatty acids, enriched with avocado, and a high-carbohydrate diet.
Am J Clin Nutr, 56 (1992), pp. 671-677
[55.]
J.D. Curb, G. Wergowske, C. Dobbs, R.D. Abbott, B. Huang.
Serum lipid effects of a high-monounsaturated fat diet based on macadamia nuts.
Arch Intern Med, 160 (2000), pp. 1154-1158
[56.]
S.M. Grundy, L. Florentin, D. Nix, M.F. Whelan.
Comparison of monounsaturated fatty acids and carbohydrates for reducing raised levels of plasma cholesterol in man.
Am J Clin Nutr, 47 (1988), pp. 965-969
[57.]
S.M. Grundy.
Comparison of monounsaturated fatty acids and carbohydrates for lowering plasma cholesterol.
N Engl J Med, 314 (1986), pp. 745-748
[58.]
R.P. Mensink, M.J. Groot, L.T. Van der Broeke, A.P. Severijnen-Nobels, P.N. Demacker, M.B. Katan.
Effects of monounsaturated fatty acids vs complex carbohydrates on serum lipoproteins and apoproteins in healthy men and women.
Metabolism, 38 (1989), pp. 172-178
[59.]
L. Berglund, E.H. Oliver, N. Fontanez, S. Holleran, K. Matthews, P.S. Roheim, et al.
HDL-subpopulation patterns in response to reductions in dietary total and saturated fat intakes in healthy subjects.
Am J Clin Nutr, 70 (1999), pp. 992-1000
[60.]
S. Jansen, J. López-Miranda, P. Castro, F. López-Segura, C. Marín, J.M. Ordovás, et al.
Low-fat and high-monounsaturated fatty acid diets decrease plasma colesterol ester transfer pro-tein concentrations in young, healthy, normolipemic men.
Am J Clin Nutr, 72 (2000), pp. 36-41
[61.]
F. Tato, G.L. Vega, A.R. Tall, S.M. Grundy.
Relation between cholesterol ester transfer protein activities and lipoprotein cholesterol in patients with hypercholesterolemia and combined hyperlipidemia.
Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol, 15 (1995), pp. 112-120
[62.]
P.M. Kris-Etherton, T.A. Pearson, Y. Wan, R.L. Hargrove, K. Moriarty, V. Fishell.
High-monounsaturated fatty acid diets lower both plasma cholesterol and triacylglycerol concentrations.
Am J Clin Nutr, 70 (1999), pp. 1009-1015
[63.]
F. Pérez-Jiménez, A. Espino, F. López-Segura, J. Blanco, V. Ruiz-Gutiérrez, J.L. Prada.
Lipoprotein concentrations in normolipidemic males consuming oleic acid-rich diets from two different sources: olive oil and oleic-rich sunflower oil.
Am J Clin Nutr, 62 (1995), pp. 769-775
[64.]
E. Feldman.
Assorted monounsaturated fatty acids promote healthy hearts.
Am J Clin Nutr, 70 (1999), pp. 953-954
[65.]
E.M. Berry, S. Eisenberg, D. Haratz, Y. Frielander, Y. Norman, N.A. Kaufmann, et al.
Effects of diet rich in monounsaturated fatty acids on plasma lipoproteins –the Jerusalem Nutrition study: high MUFAs vs high PUFAs.
Am J Clin Nutr, 53 (1991), pp. 899-907
[66.]
A. Bonanome, A. Pagnan, S. Biffanti, A. Opportuno, F. Sorgato, M. Dorella, et al.
Effect of dietary monounsaturated and polyunsaturated fatty acids on the susceptibility of plasma low density lipoproteins to oxidative modification.
Arterioscler Thromb, 12 (1992), pp. 529-533
[67.]
P. Reaven, S. Parthasarathy, B.J. Grasse, E. Miller, D. Steinberg, J.L. Witztum.
Effects of oleate-rich and linoleate-rich diets on the susceptibility of low density lipoprotein to oxidative modifications in mildly hypercholesterolemic subjects.
J Clin Invest, 91 (1993), pp. 668-676
[68.]
E.M. Berry, S. Eisenberg, Y. Friedlander, D. Harats, N.A. Kaufmann, Y. Norman, et al.
Effects of diets rich in monounsaturated fatty acids on plasma lipoproteins –the Jerusalem Study. II Monounsaturated fatty acids vs carbohydrates.
Am J Clin Nutr, 56 (1992), pp. 394-402
[69.]
P. Castro, J. López Miranda, P. Gómez, D.M. Escalante, F. López-Segura, A. Martín, et al.
Comparison of an oleic acid enriched-diet vs NCEP-I diet on LDL susceptibility to oxidative modifications.
Eur J Clin Nutr, 54 (2000), pp. 61-67
[70.]
J. López-Miranda, P. Gómez, P. Castro, C. Marín, E. Paz, M.D. Bravo, et al.
La dieta mediterránea mejora la resistencia a la oxidación de las lipoproteínas de baja densidad.
Med Clin (Barc), 115 (2000), pp. 361-365
[71.]
G. Papadopoulus, D. Boskou.
Antioxidant effect of natural phenols on olive oil.
J Am Chem Soc, 68 (1991), pp. 669-671
[72.]
M.C. Ramírez-Tortosa, G. Urbano, M. López-Jurado, T. Nestares, M.C. Gómez, A. Mir, et al.
Extra-virgin olive oil increases the resistance of LDL to oxidation more than refined olive oil in free-living men with peripheral vascular disease.
J Nutr, 129 (1999), pp. 2177-2183
[73.]
M. Fitó, M.I. Covas, R.M. Lamuela-Raventós, J. Vila, C. De la Torre, J. Marrugat.
Aceite de oliva e inhibición de la oxidación de las lipoproteínas de baja densidad. Importancia de los compuestos fenólicos.
Med Clin (Barc), 115 (2000), pp. 166-169
[74.]
R. De la Puerta, V. Ruiz-Gutiérrez.
Efecto protector de los polifenoles del aceite de oliva virgen en sistemas de liberación de radicales libres y eicosanoides.
Clin Invest Arterioscler, 12 (2000), pp. 183-190
[75.]
M. Fitó, M.I. Covas, R.M. Lamuela-Raventós, J. Vila, C. De la Torre, J. Marrugat.
Protective effect of olive oil and its phenolic compounds against low density lipoprotein oxidation.
Lipids, 35 (2000), pp. 633-638
[76.]
M. Brenes, A. García, P. García, J.J. Ríos, A. Garrido.
Phenolic compounds in spanish olive oil.
J Agric Food Chem, 47 (1999), pp. 3535-3540
[77.]
R.W. Owen, W. Mier, A. Giacosa, W.E. Hull, B. Spiegelhalder, H. Bartsch.
Phenolic compounds and squalene in olive oils: the concentration and antioxidant potential of total phenols, simple phenols, secoiridoids, lignansand squalene.
Food Chem Toxicol, 38 (2000), pp. 647-659
[78.]
R.W. Owen, W. Mier, A. Giacosa, W.E. Hull, B. Spiegelhalder, H. Bartsch.
Identification of lignans as major components in the phenolic fraction of olive oil.
Clin Chem, 46 (2000), pp. 976-988
[79.]
B.J. Burri, R.M. Dougherty, D.S. Kelley, J.M. Iacono.
Platelet aggregation in humans is affected by replacement of dietary linoleic acid with oleic acid.
Am J Clin Nutr, 54 (1991), pp. 359-362
[80.]
J.S. Kwon, J.T. Snook, G.M. Wardlaw, D.H. Hwang.
Effects of diets high in saturated fatty acids, canola oil or sawfflower oil on platelet function, thromboxane B2 formation, and fatty acid composition of platelet phospholipids.
Am J Clin Nutr, 54 (1991), pp. 351-358
[81.]
F. López Segura, F. Velasco, J. López Miranda, P. Castro, R. López Pedrera, A. Blanco, et al.
Monounsaturated fatty acidenriched diet decreases plasma plasminogen activator inhibitor type 1.
Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol, 16 (1996), pp. 82-88
[82.]
P. Mata, R. Alonso, A. López Farré, J.M. Ordovás, C. Lahoz, C. Garces, et al.
Effects of dietary fat saturation on LDL oxidation and monocyte adhesion to human endotelial cells in vitro.
Artheroescler Thromb Vasc Biol, 16 (1996), pp. 1347-1355
[83.]
F. Fuentes, J. López-Miranda, E. Sánchez, F. Sánchez, J. Páez, Paz-Rojas, et al.
Mediterranean and low-fat diets improve endothelial function in hypercholesterolemic men.
Ann Intern Med, 134 (2001), pp. 1115-1119
[84.]
A.P. Simopoulos.
Omega-3 fatty acids. Part I: metabolic effects of omega-3 fatty acids and essentiality.
Handbook of lipids in human nutrition, pp. 51-73
[85.]
A.P. Simopoulos.
Omega-3 fatty acids. Part II: epidemiological aspects of omega-3 fatty acids in disease states.
Handbook of lipids in human nutrition, pp. 75-89
[86.]
R.O. Mensink, M.B. Katan.
Effect of a diet enriched with monounsaturated or polyunsaturated fatty acids on levels of lowdensity and high density lipoprotein cholesterol in healthy women and men.
N Engl J Med, 321 (1989), pp. 436-441
[87.]
J.K. Chan, V.M. Bruce, B.E. McDonald.
Dietary alpha-linolenic acid is as effective as oleic acid and linoleic acid in lowering blood cholesterol in normolipemic men.
Am J Clin Nutr, 53 (1991), pp. 1230-1234
[88.]
G.M. Wardlaw, J.T. Snook, M.C. Lin, M.A. Puangco, J.S. Kwon.
Serum lipid and apolipoprotein concentrations in healthy men on diets enriched in either canola oil or sawfflower oil.
Am J Clin Nutr, 54 (1991), pp. 104-110
[89.]
U. Wahrburg, H. Martin, M. Sandkamp, H. Schulte, G. Assmann.
Comparative effects of a recommended lipid-lowering diet vs a diet rich in monounsaturated fatty acids on serum lipid profiles in healthy young adults.
Am J Clin Nutr, 56 (1992), pp. 678-683
[90.]
A.H. Lichtenstein, L.M. Ausman, W. Carrasco, J.L. Jenner, L.J. Gualtieri, B.R. Godin, et al.
Effects of canola, corn, and olive oils on fasting and postprandial plasma lipoproteins in humans as part of a National Cholesterol Education Program Step 2 diet.
Arterioscler Thromb, 13 (1993), pp. 1533-1542
[91.]
M.C. Nydahl, I.B. Gustafsson, B. Vessby.
Lipid-lowering diets enriched with monounsaturated or polyunsaturated fatty acids but low in saturated fatty acids have similar effects on serum lipid concentrations in hyperlipidemic patients.
Am J Clin Nutr, 59 (1994), pp. 115-122
[92.]
G.L. Vega, E. Groszek, R. Wolf, S.M. Grundy.
Influence of polyunsaturated fats on composition of plasma lipoproteins and apoliproteins.
J Lipid Res, 23 (1982), pp. 811-822
[93.]
J. Shepherd, C.J. Packard, J.R. Patsch, A.M. Gotto, O.D. Taunton.
Effects of dietary polyunsaturated and saturated fat on the properties of high density lipoprotein and the metabolism A-I.
J Clin Invest, 60 (1978), pp. 1582-1592
[94.]
R.L. Jackson, M.L. Kashyap, R.L. Barnhart, C. Allen, E. Hogg, C.J. Glueck.
Influence of polyunsaturated and saturated fats on plasma lipids and lipoproteins in man.
Am J Clin Nutr, 39 (1984), pp. 589-597
[95.]
F. Fumeron, L. Brigant, H.J. Parra, J.M. Bard, J.C. Fruchart, M. Apfelbaum.
Lowering of HDL2-cholesterol and lipoprotein AI particle levels by increasing the ratio of polyunsaturated to saturated fatty acids.
Am J Clin Nutr, 53 (1991), pp. 655-659
[96.]
H.O. Bang, J. Dyeberg, N. Hyome.
The composition of food consumed by Greenlandic Eskimos.
Acta Med Scand, 200 (1973), pp. 69-73
[97.]
A.J. Parkinson, A.L. Cruz, W.L. Heyward, D. Hall, L. Barstaed, W.E. Connor.
Elevated concentrations of plasma w-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids among Alaskan Eskimos.
Am J Clin Nutr, 59 (1994), pp. 384-388
[98.]
D. Kromhout, E.B. Bosschietter, C.L. Coulander.
The inverse relation between fish consumption and 20-year mortality from coronary heart disease.
N Engl J Med, 312 (1985), pp. 1205-1209
[99.]
T.A. Dolecek.
Epidemiological evidence of relationships between dietary polyunsaturated fatty acids and mortality in the Multiple Risk Factor Intervention Trial.
Proc Soc Exp Biol Med, 200 (1992), pp. 177-182
[100.]
D. Kromhout, E.J.M. Feskens, C.H. Bowles.
The protective effect of a small amount of fish on coronary heart disease mortality in an elderly population.
Int J Epidemiol, 24 (1995), pp. 340-345
[101.]
M.L. Daviglus, J. Stamler, A.J. Orencia, A.R. Dyer, K. Liu, P. Greenland, et al.
Fish consumption and the 30-year risk of fatal myocardial infarction.
N Engl J Med, 336 (1997), pp. 1046-1053
[102.]
B.L. Rodríguez, D.S. Sharp, R.D. Abbott, C.M. Burchfiel, K. Masaki, P.H. Chyou, et al.
Fish intake may limit the increase in risk of coronary heart disease morbidity and mortality among heavy smokers: the Honolulu Heart Program.
Circulation, 94 (1996), pp. 952-956
[103.]
C.M. Oomen, E.J. Feskens, L. Rasanen, F. Fidanza, A.M. Nissinen, A. Meotti, et al.
Fish consumption and coronary heart disease mortality in Finland, Italy, and the Netherlands.
Am J Epidemiol, 151 (2000), pp. 999-1006
[104.]
L. Lapidus, H. Andersson, C. Bengtsson, I. Bosaeus.
Dietary habits in relation to incidence of cardiovascular disease and death in women: a 12-year follow-up of participans in the population study of women in Gothenburg, Sweden.
Am J Clin Nutr, 44 (1986), pp. 444-448
[105.]
S.E. Norell, A. Ahlbom, M. Feychting, N.L. Pedersen.
Fish consumption and mortality from coronary heart disease.
BMJ, 293 (1986), pp. 426-436
[106.]
A. Ascherio, E.B. Rimm, M.J. Stampfer, E.l. Giovanucci, W.C. Willet.
Dietary intake of marine n-3 fatty acids, fish intake, and the risk of coronary disease among men.
N Engl J Med, 332 (1995), pp. 977-982
[107.]
M.C. Morris, J.E. Manson, B. Rosner, J.E. Buring, W.C. Willet, C.H. Hennekens.
Fish consumption and cardiovascular disease in the physicians' health study: a prospective study.
Am J Epidemiol, 142 (1995), pp. 166-175
[108.]
T.A. Miettinen, V. Naukkarinen, J.K. Huttunen, S. Mattila, T. Kumlin.
Fatty-acid composition of serum lipids predicts myocardial infarction.
BMJ, 285 (1982), pp. 993-996
[109.]
E. Guallar, C.H. Hennekens, F.M. Sacks, W.C. Willett, M.J. Stampfer.
A prospective study of plasma fish oil levels and incidence of myocardial infarction in US male physicians.
J Am Coll Cardiol, 25 (1995), pp. 387-394
[110.]
E. Guallar, A. Aro, F.J. Jiménez, J.M. Martín-Moreno, I. Salminen, P. Van't Veer, et al.
Omega-3 fatty acids in adipose tissue and risk of myocardial infarction. The EURAMIC study.
Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol, 19 (1999), pp. 1111-1118
[111.]
J.I. Pedersen, J. Ringstad, K. Almendringen, T.S. Haugen, I. Stensvold, D.S. Thelle.
Adipose tissue fatty acids and risk of myocardial infarction – a case-control study.
Eur J Clin Nutr, 54 (2000), pp. 618-625
[112.]
E. Guallar, F.J. Jiménez, M. Tafalla, J.M. Martín Moreno.
Consumo de pescado y mortalidad coronaria en población general: metaanálisis de estudios de cohorte.
Gac Sanit, 7 (1993), pp. 228-236
[113.]
P. Marckman, M. Gronbaek.
Fish consumption and coronary heart disease mortality. A systematic review of prospective cohort studies.
Eur J Clin Nutr, 53 (1999), pp. 585-590
[114.]
C.M. Albert, C.H. Hennekens, C.J. O'Donnell, U.A. Ajani, V.J. Carey, W.C. Willet, et al.
Fish consumptionn and risk of sudden cardiac death.
JAMA, 279 (1998), pp. 23-28
[115.]
M.L. Burr, J.F. Gilbert, R.M. Holliday, P.C. Elwood, A.M. Fehily, S. Rogers, et al.
Effects of changes in fat fish, and fibre intakes on death and myocardial reinfarction: diet and reinfarction trial (DART).
Lancet, 2 (1989), pp. 757-761
[116.]
Gruppo Italiano per lo studio della sopravvivenza nell'infarto miocardico.
Dietary supplementation with n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids and vitamin E after myocardial infarction: results of the GISSI-Prevenzione Trial.
Lancet, 354 (1999), pp. 447-455
[117.]
R.F. Gillium, M. Mussolino, J.H. Madans.
The relation between fish consumption, death from all causes, and incidence of coronary heart disease. The NHANES I epidemiologic followup study.
J Clin Epidemiol, 53 (2000), pp. 237-244
[118.]
D.S. Siscovick, T.E. Raghunathan, I. King, S. Weinmann, V.E. Boubjerg, L. Kushi, et al.
Dietay intake of long-chain n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids and the risk of primary cardiac arrest.
Am J Clin Nutr, 71 (2000), pp. 208-212
[119.]
D.S. Siscovick, T.E. Raghunathan, I. King, S. Weinmann, K.G. Wicklund, J. Albright, et al.
Dietary intake and cell membrane levels of long-chain n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids and the risk of primary cardiac arrest.
JAMA, 274 (1995), pp. 1363-1367
[120.]
A. Leaf, J.X. Kang, Y.F. Xiao, G.E. Billman, R.A. Voskuyl.
Experimental studies on antiarrhythmic and antiseizure effects of polyunsaturated fatty acids in excitable tissues.
J Nutr Biochem, 10 (1999), pp. 440-448
[121.]
G.E. Billman, J.X. Kang, A. Leaf.
Prevention of sudden cardiac death by dietary pure omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids in dogs.
Circulation, 99 (1999), pp. 2452-2457
[122.]
H. Hallaq, T.W. Smith, A. Leaf.
Modulation of dihydropyrinesensitive calcium channels in heart cells by fish oil fatty acids.
Proc Natl Acad Sci USA, 89 (1992), pp. 1760-1764
[123.]
S. Pepe, K. Bogdanov, H. Hallaq, H.A. Spurgeon, A. Leaf, E. Lakatta.
Omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid modulates dihydropyridine effects on L-type Ca2+ channels, cytosolic Ca2+, and contraction in adult rat cardiac myocytes.
Proc Natl Aca Sci USA, 91 (1994), pp. 8832-8836
[124.]
C. Von Schacky, P. Angerer, W. Kothny, K. Theisen, H. Mudra.
The effect of dietary omega-3 fatty acids on coronary atherosclerosis. A randomized, doubled-blind, placebo-controlled trial.
Ann Intern Med, 130 (1999), pp. 554-562
[125.]
C. Von Schacky.
n-3 fatty acids and the prevention of coronary atherosclerosis.
Am J Clin Nutr, 71 (2000), pp. 224-227
[126.]
J.P. Gapinsky, J.V. Van Ruiswyk, G.R. Heudebert, G.S. Schectman.
Preventing restenosis with fish oils following coronary angioplasty. A metaanalysis.
Arch Intern Med, 153 (1993), pp. 1595-1601
[127.]
A. Leaf, M.B. Jorgensen, A.K. Jacobs, G. Cote, D.A. Schoenfeld, J. Scheer, et al.
Do fish oils prevent restenosis after coronary angioplasty?.
Circulation, 90 (1994), pp. 2248-2257
[128.]
F.M. Sacks, P.H. Stone, C.M. Gibson, D.I. Silverman, B. Rosner, R.C. Pasternak.
Controlled trial of fish oil for regresion of human coronary atherosclerosis.
J Am Coll Cardiol, 25 (1995), pp. 1492-1498
[129.]
J.A. Cairns, J. Gill, B. Morton, R. Roberts, M. Gent, J. Hirsch, et al.
Fish oils and low-molecular-weight heparin for the reduction of restenosis after percutaneous transluminal coronary angioplasty. The EMPAR study.
Circulation, 94 (1996), pp. 1553-1560
[130.]
O. Johansen, M. Breke, I. Seljeflot, M. Abdelnoor, H. Arnesen.
N-3 fatty acids do no prevent restenosis coronary angioplasty results from the CART study. Coronary Angioplasty Restenosis Trial.
J Am Coll Cardiol, 33 (1999), pp. 1619-1626
[131.]
H. Iso, K.M. Rexrode, M.J. Stampfer, J.E. Manson, G.A. Colditz, F.E. Speizer, et al.
Intake of fish and omega-3 fatty acids and risk of stroke in women.
JAMA, 285 (2001), pp. 304-312
[132.]
S.O. Keri, E.J.M. Feskens, D. Kromhout.
Fish consumption and risk of stroke: the Zutphen Study.
Stroke, 25 (1994), pp. 328-332
[133.]
R.F. Gillium, M.E. Mussolino, J.H. Madans.
The relationship between fish consumption and stroke incidence: the NHANES I epidemiologic follow-up study.
Arch Intern Med, 156 (1996), pp. 537-542
[134.]
A.J. Orencia, M.L. Daviglus, A.R. Dyer, R.B. Shekelle, J. Stamler.
Fish consumption and stroke in men: 30-year findings of Chicago Western Electric Study.
Stroke, 27 (1996), pp. 204-209
[135.]
W.S. Harris.
Fish oils and plasma lipid and lipoprotein metabolism in humans.
J Lipid Res, 30 (1989), pp. 785-807
[136.]
W.S. Harris.
Dietary fish oil and blood lipids.
Curr Opin Lipidol, 7 (1996), pp. 3-7
[137.]
P.J. Nestel.
Fish oil and cardiovascular disease: lipids and arterial function.
Am J Clin Nutr, 71 (2000), pp. 228-231
[138.]
M.C. Blonk, H.J.G. Bilo, J.J.P. Nauta, C. Popp-Snijders, C. Mulder, A.J.M. Donker.
Dose-response effects of fish-oils supplementation in healthy volunteers.
Am J Clin Nutr, 52 (1990), pp. 120-127
[139.]
E.B. Schmidt, K. Varming, E. Ernst, P. Madsen, J. Dyerberg.
Dose-response studies on the effect of n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids on lipids and haemostasis.
Thromb Haemost, 63 (1990), pp. 1-5
[140.]
K.H. Bonaa, K.S. Bjerve, A. Nordoy.
Habitual fish consumption, plasma phospholipid fatty acids, and serum lipids: the Tromso Study.
Am J Clin Nutr, 55 (1992), pp. 1126-1134
[141.]
S. Nozaki, A. Garg, G.L. Vega, S.M. Grundy.
Postheparin lipolytic activity and plasma lipoprotein response to w-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids in patients with hypertriglyceridemia.
Am J Clin Nutr, 53 (1991), pp. 638-642
[142.]
H.M. Roche, M.J. Gibney.
Effect of long n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids on fasting and postprandial triacylglycerol metabolism.
Am J Clin Nutr, 71 (2000), pp. 232-237
[143.]
W.S. Harris, W.E. Connor, R.D. Illinworth, D.W. Rothrock, D.M. Foster.
Effects of fish oil on VLDL triglyceride kinetics in humans.
J Lipid Res, 31 (1990), pp. 1549-1558
[144.]
I.J. Goldberg.
Lipoprotein lipase and lipolysis: central role on lipoprotein metabolism and atherogenesis.
J Lipid Res, 37 (1996), pp. 693-707
[145.]
A. Zanpelas, M. Murphy, L.M. Morgan, C.M. Williams.
Postprandial lipoprotein lipase, insulin and gastric inhibitory polypeptide responses to test meals of different fatty acid composition: comparison of saturated, n-6 and n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids.
Eur J Clin Nutr, 48 (1994), pp. 849-858
[146.]
M. Abbey, P. Clifton, M. Kestin, B. Belling, P.J. Nestle.
Effect of fish oil on lipoproteins, lecitin: cholesterol acyltransferase, and lipid transfer protein activity in humans.
Arteriosclerosis, 10 (1990), pp. 85-94
[147.]
F. Fumeron, L. Brigant, V. Ollivier, D. De Prost, F. Driss, P. Darcet, et al.
N-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids raise low density lipoproteins, high density lipoprotein 2, and plasminogen-activator inhibitor in healthy young men.
Am J Clin Nutr, 54 (1991), pp. 118-122
[148.]
M. Suzukawa, M. Abbey, P.R.C. Howe, P.J. Nestle.
Effects of fish oil fatty acids on low density lipoproteins size, oxidizability, and uptake by macrophages.
J Lipid Res, 36 (1995), pp. 437-484
[149.]
L.F. Tinker, S.R. Parks EJ Behr, B.O. Schneeman, P.A. Davis.
N-3 fatty acid supplementation in moderately hypertriglyceridemic adults changes postprandial lipid and apolipoprotein B responses to standardized test meal.
J Nutr, 129 (1999), pp. 1126-1134
[150.]
F.J. Sánchez Muñiz, S. Bastide, J.M. Viejo, A.H. Terpstra.
Small supplements of n-3 fatty acids change serum low density lipoprotein composition by decreasing phospholipid and apolipoprotein B concentrations in young adult women.
Eur J Clin Nutr, 38 (1999), pp. 20-27
[151.]
P.D. Roach, A.M. Kambouris, R.P. Trimble, D.L. Topping, P.J. Nestle.
The effects of dietary fish oil on hepatic high density and low density lipoprotein receptor activities in the rat.
FEBS lett, 222 (1987), pp. 159-162
[152.]
J. Eritsland, H. Arnesen, I. Seljeflot, A.T. Hostmark.
Long-term metabolic effects of n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids in patients with coronary artery disease.
Am J Clin Nutr, 61 (1995), pp. 831-836
[153.]
J. Eristland.
Safety considerations of polyunsaturated fatty acids.
Am J Clin Nutr, 71 (2000), pp. 197-201
[154.]
S.M. Marcovina, H. Kennedy, G. Bittolo Bon, G. Cazzolato, C. Galli, E. Casiglia, et al.
Fish intake, indepedent of apo (a) size, accounts for lower plasma lipoprotein (a) levels in Bantu fishermen of Tanzania: the Lugalawa Study.
Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol, 19 (1999), pp. 1250-1256
[155.]
O. Haglund, J.L. Mehta, T. Saldeen.
Effects of fish oil on some parameters of fibrinolysis and lipoprotein (a) in healthy subjects.
Am J Cardiol, 74 (1994), pp. 189-192
[156.]
J. Dyerberg, O.H. Bang, E. Stoffersen, S. Moncada, S. Vane.
Eicosapentanoic acid and prevention of thrombosis and atherosclerosis.
Lancet, 2 (1978), pp. 117-119
[157.]
J. Dyerberg, O.H. Bang.
Haemostatic function and platelet polyunsaturated fatty acids in Eskimos.
Lancet, 2 (1979), pp. 433-435
[158.]
T. Terano, A. Hirai, T. Hamazaki, S. Kobayashi, T. Fujita, Y. Tamura, et al.
Effect of oral administration of highly purified eicosapentanoic acid on platelet function, blood viscosity and red cell deformability in healthy human subjects.
Atherosclerosis, 46 (1983), pp. 321-331
[159.]
T.H. Lee, R.L. Hoover, J.D. Williams, R.I. Sperling, J. Ravaleses, B.W. Spurr, et al.
Effect of dietary enrichment with eicosapentanoic and docosahexanoic acids on in vitro neutrophil function.
N Engl J Med, 312 (1985), pp. 1217-1224
[160.]
A.T. Hostmark, T. Bjerkedal, P. Kierulf, H. Platen, K. Ulshagen.
Fish oil and plasma fibrinogen.
BMJ, 297 (1988), pp. 180-181
[161.]
C. Von Schacky, S. Fisher, P.C. Weber.
Long-term effect of dietary marine n-3 fatty acids upon plasma and cellular lipids, platelet function and eicosanoid formation in humans.
J Clin Invest, 76 (1985), pp. 1626-1631
[162.]
L. Cobiac, P.M. Clifton, M. Abbey, B. Belling, P.J. Nestel.
Lipid, lipoprotein, and hemostatic effects of fish vs fish-oil n-3 fatty acids in mildy hyperlipidemic males.
Am J Clin Nutr, 53 (1991), pp. 1210-1216
[163.]
R.C. Wander, B.D. Patton.
Comparison of three species of fish consumed as part of a western diet: effects on platelet fatty acids and function, hemostasis and production of thromboxane.
Am J Clin Nutr, 54 (1991), pp. 326-333
[164.]
X. Li, M. Steiner.
Dose response of dietary fish oil supplementations on platelet adhesion.
Arterioscler Thromb, 11 (1991), pp. 39-46
[165.]
H. Iso, A.R. Folsom, S. Sato, K.K. Wu, T. Shimamoto, K. Koike, et al.
Plasma fibrinogen and its correlates in japanese and US population samples.
Arterioscler Thromb, 13 (1993), pp. 783-790
[166.]
E. Shahar, A.R. Folsom, K.K. Wu, B.H. Dennis, T. Shimawaka, M.G. Conlan, et al.
Association of fish intake and dietary n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids with a hypocoagulable profile. The Atherosclerosis Risk in Communities (ARIC) Study.
Arterioscler Thromb, 13 (1993), pp. 1205-1212
[167.]
R.D. De Caterina, J.K. Liao, P. Libby.
Fatty acid modulation of endothelial activation.
Am J Clin Nutr, 71 (2000), pp. 213-223
[168.]
M. Mutanen.
Freese. Fats, lipids and blood coagulation.
Curr Opin Lipidol, 12 (2001), pp. 25-29
[169.]
A.A. Brown, F.B. Hu.
Dietary modulation of endothelial function: implications for cardiovascular disease.
Am J Clin Nutr, 73 (2001), pp. 673-686
[170.]
F. Thies, G. Nebe-von-Caron, J.R. Powell, P. Yaqoob, E.A. Newsholme, P.C. Calder.
Dietary supplementation with eicosapentaenoic acid, but not with other long-chain n-3 or n-6 polyun-saturated fatty acids, decreases natural killer cell activity in healthy subjects aged > 55 y.
Am J Clin Nutr, 73 (2001), pp. 539-548
[171.]
R.A. Vogel, M.C. Correti, G.D. Plotnick.
The postprandial effect of components of the Mediterranean diet on endothelial function.
J Am Coll Cardiol, 36 (2000), pp. 1455-1460
[172.]
R. Ross.
Atherosclerosis .an inflammatory disease.
N Engl J Med, 340 (1999), pp. 115-126
[173.]
W.E. Kaminsky, E. Jendraschak, R. Kielf, C. Von Sckacky.
Dietary omega-3 fatty acids lower levels of platelet-derived growth factor mRNA in human mononuclear cells.
Blood, 81 (1993), pp. 1871-1879
[174.]
K.H. Baumann, F. Hessel, I. Larass, T. Muller, P. Angerer, R. Kiefl, C. Von Schacky.
Dietary omega-3, omega-6, and omega-9 unsaturated fatty acids and growth factor and cytokine gene expresion in unstimulated and stimulated monocytes. A randomized volunteer study.
Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol, 19 (1999), pp. 59-66
[175.]
O. Johansen, I. Seljeflot, A.T. Hostmark, H. Amesen.
The effect of supplementation with omega-3 fatty acids on soluble markers of endothelial function in patients with coronary heart disease.
Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol, 19 (1999), pp. 1681-1686
[176.]
P. Angerer, C. Von Schacky.
n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids and the cardiovascular system.
Curr Opin Lipidol, 11 (2000), pp. 57-63
[177.]
T.A. Mori, L.J. Beilin.
Long-chain omega 3 fatty acids, blood lipids and cardiovascular risk reduction.
Curr Opin Lipidol, 12 (2001), pp. 11-17
[178.]
J. Sabate.
Nut consumption, vegetarian diets, ischemic heart disease risk, and all-cause mortality: evidence from epidemiologic studies.
Am J Clin Nutr, 70 (1999), pp. 500-503
[179.]
G.E. Fraser, J. Sabate, W.L. Beeson, T.M. Strahan.
A possible protective effect of nut consumption on risk of coronary heart disease. The Adventist Healht Study.
Arch Intern Med, 152 (1992), pp. 1416-1424
[180.]
R.J. Prineas, L.H. Kushi, A.R. Folsom, R.M. BosticK, Y. Wu.
Walnuts and serum lipids.
N Engl J Med, 328 (1993), pp. 603-607
[181.]
L.H. Kushi, A.R. Folsom, R.J. Prineas, P.J. Mink, Y. Wu, R.M. Bostick.
Dietary antioxidant vitamins and death from coronary heart disease in postmenopausal women.
N Engl J Med, 334 (1996), pp. 1156-1162
[182.]
F.B. Hu, M.J. Stampfer, J.E. Manson, E.B. Rimm, G.A. Colditz, B.A. Rosner, et al.
Frequent nut consumption and risk of coronary heart disease in women: prospective cohort study.
BMJ, 317 (1998), pp. 1341-1345
[183.]
J. Sabate, G.E. Fraser, K. Burke, S.F. Knutsen, H. Bennett, K.D. Lindsted.
Effects of walnuts on serum lipid levels and blood pressure in normal men.
N Engl J Med, 328 (1993), pp. 603-607
[184.]
D. Zambon, J. Sabate, S. Munoz, B. Campero, E. Casals, M. Merlos, et al.
Substituting walnuts for monounsaturated fat improves the serum lipid profile of hypercholesterolemic men and women. A randomized crossover trial.
Ann Intern Med, 132 (2000), pp. 538-546
[185.]
M. Abbey, M. Noakes, G.B. Belling, P.J. Nestel.
Partial replacement of saturated fatty acids with almonds or walnuts lowers total plasma cholesterol and low-density-lipoprotein cholesterol.
Am J Clin Nutr, 59 (1994), pp. 995-999
[186.]
G.A. Spiller, D. Jenkins, L.N. Gragen, J.E. Gates, O. Bosello, K. Berra, et al.
Effect of a diet high in monounsaturated fat from almonds on plasma cholesterol and lipoproteins.
J Am Coll Nutr, 11 (1992), pp. 126-130
[187.]
L. Masana, P. Cabre, R. Sola.
Importancia de los frutos secos. Revision y aportaciones espanolas a su estudio.
Clin Invest Arterioscler, 12 (2000), pp. 27-30
[188.]
W.A. Morgan, B.J. Clayshulte.
Pecans lower low-density lipoprotein cholesterol in people with normal lipid levels.
J Am Diet Assoc, 100 (2000), pp. 312-318
[189.]
P.M. Kris-Etherton, S. Yu-Poth, J. Sabate, H.E. Ratcliffe, G. Zhao, T.D. Etherton.
Nuts and their bioactive constituents: effects on serum lipids and other factors that affect disease risk.
Am J Clin Nutr, 70 (1999), pp. 504-511
[190.]
J. Sabate, G.E. Fraser.
Nuts: a new protective food against coronary heart disease.
Curr Opin Lipidol, 5 (1994), pp. 11-16
[191.]
G.E. Fraser.
Nut Consumption, lipids and risk of a coronary event.
Clin Cardiol, 22 (1999), pp. 11-15
[192.]
M. De Lorgeril, S. Renaud, N. Mamelle, P. Salen, J.L. Martin, I. Monjaud, et al.
Mediterranean alpha-linoleic acid-rich diet in secondary prevention of coronary heart disease.
Lancet, 343 (1994), pp. 1454-1459
[193.]
M. De Lorgeril, P. Salen, J.L. Martin, I. Monjaud, J. Delaye, N. Mamelle.
Mediterranean diet, traditional risk factors, and the rate of cardiovascular complications after myocardial infarction: final report of the Lyon Diet Heart Study.
Circulation, 99 (1999), pp. 779-785
[194.]
R.B. Sing, M.A. Niaz, J.P. Sharma, R. Kumar, V. Rastogui, M. Moshiri.
Randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial of fish oil and mustard oil in patients with suspected acute myocardial infarction: the Indian experiment of infarct survival-4.
Cardiovasc Drugs Ther, 11 (1997), pp. 485-491
[195.]
F.B. Hu, M.J. Stampfer, J.E. Manson, E.B. Rimm, A. Wolk, G.A. Colditz, et al.
Dietary intake of α-linolenic acid and the risk of fatal ischemic heart disease among women.
Am J Clin Nutr, 69 (1999), pp. 890-897
[196.]
M.B. Katan, P.L. Zock, R.P. Mensink.
Trans fatty acids and their effects on lipoproteins in humans.
Annu Rev Nutr, 15 (1995), pp. 473-493
[197.]
R.P. Mensink, M.B. Katan.
Effect of dietary trans fatty acids on high-density and low-density lipoprotein cholesterol levels in healthy subjects.
N Engl J Med, 323 (1990), pp. 439-445
[198.]
W.C. Willett, A. Ascherio.
Trans fatty acids: are the effects only marginal?.
Am J Public Health, 84 (1994), pp. 722-724
[199.]
Expert Panel on Trans Fatty Acids and Coronary Heart Disease.
Trans fatty acids and coronary heart disease risk.
Am J Clin Nutr, 62 (1995), pp. S655-S708
[200.]
P.L. Zock, M.B. Katan.
Hydrogenation alternatives: effects of trans fatty acids and stearic acid versus linoleic acid on serum lipids and lipoproteins in humans.
J Lipid Res, 33 (1992), pp. 399-410
[201.]
P. Nestel, M. Noakes, B. Belling, R. Mc Arthur, P. Clifton, E. Janus, et al.
Plasma lipoprotein lipid and Lp(a) changes with substitution of elaidic acid for oleic acid in the diet.
J Lipid Res, 33 (1992), pp. 1029-1036
[202.]
J.T. Judd, B.A. Clevidence, R.A. Muesing, J. Wittes, M.E. Sunkin, J.J. Podczasy.
Dietary trans fatty acids: effects of plasma lipids and lipoproteins on healthy men and women.
Am J Clin Nutr, 59 (1994), pp. 861-868
[203.]
A.H. Lichtenstein, L.M. Ausman, W. Carrasco, J.L. Jenner, J.M. Ordovas, E.J. Schaefer.
Hydrogenation impairs the hypolipidemic effect of corn oil in humans: hydrogenation, trans fatty acids, and plasma lipids.
Aterioscler Thromb, 13 (1993), pp. 154-161
[204.]
A. Aro, M. Jauhiainen, R. Partanen, I. Salminen, M. Mutanen.
Stearic acid, trans fatty acids, and dairy fat: effects on serum and lipoprotein lipids, apolipoproteins, lipoprotein(a), and lipid transfer proteins in healthy subjects.
Am J Clin Nutr, 65 (1997), pp. 1419-1426
[205.]
K. Sundram, A. Ismail, K.C. Hayes, R. Jeyamalar, R. Pathmanathan.
Trans (elaidic) fatty acids adversely affect the lipoprotein profile relative to specific saturated fatty acids in humans.
J Nutr, 127 (1997), pp. S514-S520
[206.]
J.T. Judd, D.J. Baer, B.A. Clevidence, R.A. Muesing, S.C. Chen, J.A. Wenststrate, et al.
Effects of margarine versus butter on blood lipids profiles related to cardiovascular risk factors in normolipidemic adults fed controlled diets.
Am J Clin Nutr, 68 (1998), pp. 768-777
[207.]
H. Muller, O. Jordal, P. Kierulf, B. Kirkhus, J.L. Pedersen.
Replacement of partially hydrogenated soybean oil by palm oil in margarine without unfavourable effects on serum lipoproteins.
Lipids, 33 (1998), pp. 879-887
[208.]
A.H. Lichtenstein, L.M. Ausman, S.M. Jalbert, E.J. Schaefer.
Effects of different forms of dietary hydrogenated fats on serum lipoprotein cholesterol levels.
N Engl J Med, 340 (1999), pp. 1933-1940
[209.]
K. Almendingen, O. Jordal, P. Kierulf, B. Sandstad, J.I. Pedersen.
Effects of partially hydrogenated fish oil partially hydrogenated soybean oil and butter on serum lipoproteins and Lp(a) in men.
J Lipid Res, 36 (1995), pp. 1370-1384
[210.]
A. Ascherio, M.B. Katan, P.L. Zock, M.J. Stampfer, W.C. Willet.
Trans fatty acid and coronary heart disease.
N Engl J Med, 340 (1999), pp. 1994-1998
[211.]
M.J. Stampfer, F.M. Sacks, S. Salvini, W.C. Willett, C.H. Hennekens.
A prospective study of cholesterol, apolipoproteins, and the risk of myocardial infarction.
N Engl J Med, 325 (1991), pp. 373-381
[212.]
B.A. Clevidence, J.T. Judd, E.J. Schaefer, J.L. Jenner, A.H. Lichtenstein, R.A. Muesing, et al.
Plasma lipoprotein (a) levels in men and women consuming diets enriched in saturated, cis-, or trans-monounsaturated fatty acids.
Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol, 17 (1997), pp. 1657-1661
[213.]
R.P. Mensink, P.L. Zock, M.B. Katan, G. Hornstra.
Effect of dietary cis and trans fatty acids on serum lipoprotein (a) levels in humans.
J Lipid Res, 33 (1992), pp. 1493-1501
[214.]
K. Almedingen, I. Seljeflot, B. Sandstad, J.I. Pederson.
Effects of partially hydrogenated fish oil partially hydrogenated soybean oil and butter on hemostatic variables in men.
Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol, 16 (1996), pp. 375-380
[215.]
M. Mutanen, J. Aro.
Coagulation and fibrinolysis factors in healthy subjects consuming stearic or trans fatty acids.
Thromb Haemost, 77 (1997), pp. 99-104
[216.]
A.M. Turpeinen, J. Wubert, A. Aro, R. Lorenz, M. Mutanen.
Similar effects of diets rich in stearic acid and trans-fatty acids on platelet function and endothelial prostacyclin production in humans.
Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol, 18 (1998), pp. 316-322
[217.]
H. Muller, O. Jordal, I. Seljeflot, P. Kierulf, B. Kirkhus, O. Ledsaak, J.I. Pedersen.
Effect on plasma lipids and lipoproteins of replacing partially hydrogenated fish oil with vegetable fat in margarine.
Br J Nutr, 80 (1998), pp. 243-251
[218.]
R.A. Armstrong, J.M. Chardigny, B. Beaufrere, L. Bretillon, S.H.F. Vermunt, R.P. Mensink, et al.
No effect of dietary trans isomers of α-linolenic acid on platelet aggregation and haemostatic factors in European healthy men: the TRANSLinE Study.
Thromb Res, 100 (2000), pp. 133-141
[219.]
D. Kromhout, A. Menotti, B. Bloemberg, C. Aravanis, H. Blackburn, R. Buzina, et al.
Dietary saturated and trans fatty acids and cholesterol and 25-year mortality from coronary heart disease: the Seven Countries Study.
Prev Med, 24 (1995), pp. 308-315
[220.]
A. Ascherio, C.H. Hennekens, J.E. Buring, C. Master, M.J. Stampfer, W.C. Willett.
Trans-fatty acids intake and risk of myocardial infarction.
Circulation, 89 (1994), pp. 94-101
[221.]
C. Bolton-Smith, M. Woodward, S. Fenton, C.A. Brown.
Does dietary trans fatty acid intake relate to the prevalence of coronary heart disease in Scotland?.
Eur Heart J, 17 (1996), pp. 837-845
[222.]
A. Aro, A.F. Kardinaal, I. Salminen, J.D. Kark, R.A. Riemersma, M. Delgado-Rodriguez, et al.
Adipose tissue isomeric trans fatty acids and risk of myocardial infarction in nine countries: the EURAMIC study.
Lancet, 345 (1995), pp. 273-278
[223.]
A. Aro.
Epidemiology of trans fatty acids and coronary heart disease in Europe.
Nutr Metab Cardiovasc Dis, 8 (1998), pp. 402-407
[224.]
A. Ascherio, E.B. Rimm, E.L. Giovannucci, D. Spiegelman, M. Stampfer, W.C. Willett.
Dietary fat and risk of coronary heart disease in men: cohort follow-up study in the United States.
BMJ, 313 (1996), pp. 84-90
[225.]
P. Pietinen, A. Ascherio, P. Korhonen, W.C. Hartman AM Willett, D. Albanes, et al.
Intake of fatty acids and risk of coronary heart disease in a cohort of Finnish men: the Alpha-Tocopherol, Beta-Carotene Cancer Prevention Study.
Am J Epidemiol, 145 (1997), pp. 876-887
[226.]
F.B. Hu, M.J. Stampfer, J.E. Manson, E. Rimm, G.A. Colditz, B.A. Rosner, et al.
Dietary fat intake and the risk of coronary heart disease in women.
N Engl J Med, 337 (1997), pp. 1491-1499
[227.]
C.M. Oomen, M.C. Ocke, E.J.M. Feskens, M.A.J. Van Erp-Baart, F.J. Kok, D. Kromhout.
Association between trans fatty acid intake and 10-year risk of coronary heart disease in the Zutphen Elderly Study: a prospective population-based study.
Lancet, 357 (2001), pp. 746-751
[228.]
J. Salmeron, F.B. Hu, J.E. Manson, M.J. Stampfer, G.A. Colditz, E.B. Rimm, et al.
Dietary fat intake and risk of type 2 diabetes in women.
Am J Clin Nutr, 73 (2001), pp. 1019-1026
[229.]
K.F.A.M. Hulshof, M.A. Van Erp-Baart, M. Anttolainen, W. Becker, S.M. Church, C. Couet, et al.
Intake of fatty acids in Western Europe with emphasis on trans fatty acids: the TRANSFAIR study.
Eur J Clin Nutr, 53 (1999), pp. 143-157
[230.]
D.B. Allison, S.K. Egan, L.M. Barraj, C. Caughman, M. Infante, J.T. Heimbach.
Estimated intakes of trans fatty acids and other fatty acids in the US population.
J Am Diet Assoc, 99 (1999), pp. 166-174
[231.]
A. Aro, J. Van Amelsvoort, W. Becker, M.A. Van Erp-Baart, A. Kafatos, T. Leth, et al.
Trans fatty acids in dietary fats and oils from 14 European countries: The TRANSFAIR study.
J Food Comp Anal, 11 (1998), pp. 137-149
[232.]
L. Litin, F. Sacks.
Trans-fatty-acid content of common foods.
N Engl J Med, 329 (1993), pp. 1969-1970
[233.]
J. Parcerisa, R. Codony, J. Boatella, M. Rafecas.
Fatty acids including trans content of comercial bakery products manufactured in Spain.
J Agric Food Chem, 47 (1999), pp. 2040-2043
[234.]
A. Ascherio, M.B. Katan, P.L. Zock, M.J. Stampfer, W.C. Willet.
Trans fatty acid and coronary heart disease.
N Engl J Med, 340 (1999), pp. 1994-1998
[235.]
W.C. Willett, M.J. Stampfer, J.E. Manson, G.A. Colditz, F.E. Speizer, B.A. Rosner, et al.
Intake of trans fatty acids and risk of coronary heart disease among women.
Lancet, 341 (1993), pp. 581-585
[236.]
P. Khosla, T.V. Fungwe.
Conjugated linoleic acid: effects on plasma lipids and cardiovascular function.
Curr Opin Lipidol, 12 (2001), pp. 31-34
[237.]
A.H. Lichtenstein.
Trans fatty acids and cardiovascular disease risk.
Curr Opin Lipidol, 11 (2000), pp. 37-42
[238.]
A. Aro.
Complexity of issue of dietary trans fatty acids.
[239.]
P. Hopkins.
Effects of dietary cholesterol on serum cholesterol: a meta-analysis and review.
Am J Clin Nutr, 324 (1992), pp. 896-899
[240.]
A. Keys, O. Mickelsen, E.V.O. Miller, C.B. Chapman.
The relation in man between cholesterol levels in the diet and the blood.
Science, 112 (1950), pp. 79-81
[241.]
E. Ros.
El colesterol de la dieta y su escasa influencia sobre la colesterolemia y el riesgo cardiovascular.
Clin Invest Arterioscler, 12 (2000), pp. 20-26
[242.]
H.N. Ginsberg, W. Karmally, M. Siddiqui, S. Holleran, A.R. Tall, W.S. Blaner, et al.
Increases in dietary cholesterol are associated with modest increases in both LDL and HDL cholesterol in healthy young women.
Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol, 15 (1995), pp. 169-178
[243.]
R. Clarke, C. Frost, R. Collins, P. Appleby, R. Peto.
Dietary lipids and blood cholesterol: quantitative meta-analysis of metabolic ward studies.
BMJ, 314 (1997), pp. 112-117
[244.]
A. Keys.
Serum cholesterol response to dietary cholesterol.
Am J Clin Nutr, 40 (1984), pp. 351-359
[245.]
D.M. Hegsted, L.H. Ausman, J.A. Johnson, G.E. Dallal.
Dietary fat and serum lipids: an evaluation of the experimental data.
Am J Clin Nutr, 57 (1993), pp. 875-883
[246.]
R.M. Weggmans, P.L. Zock, M.B. Katan.
Dietary cholesterol from eggs increases the ratio of total cholesterol to high-density lipoprotein cholesterol in humans: a meta-analysis.
Am J Clin Nutr, 73 (2001), pp. 885-891
[247.]
D. Kromhout, C. Coulander.
Diet, prevalence and 10-year mortality from coronary heart disease in 871 middleaged men: the Zutphen Study.
Am J Epidemiol, 119 (1984), pp. 733-741
[248.]
F.B. Hu, M.J. Stampfer, E.B. Rimm, J.E. Manson, A. Ascherio, G.A. Colditz, et al.
A prospective study of egg consumption and risk of cardiovascular disease in men and women.
JAMA, 281 (1999), pp. 1387-1394
[249.]
P. Schnohr, O. Thomsen, P.R. Hansen, G. Boberg-Ans, H. Lawaetz, T. Weeke.
Egg consumption and high-density lipoprotein cholesterol.
J Intern Med, 235 (1994), pp. 249-251
[250.]
J. Plat, R.P. Mensink.
Efffects of plant sterols and stanols on lipid metabolism and cardiovascular risk.
Nutr Metab Cardiovasc Dis, 11 (2001), pp. 31-40
[251.]
J. Plat, D. Kerckhoffs, R.P. Mensink.
Therapeutical potential of plant sterols and stanols.
Curr Opin Lipidol, 11 (2000), pp. 571-576
[252.]
M. Law.
Plant sterol and stanol margarines and health.
BMJ, 320 (2000), pp. 861-864
[253.]
M.A. Hallikainen, M.I. Uusitupa.
Effects of 2 low-fat stanol ester-containing margarines on serum cholesterol concentrations as part of a low fat diet in hypercholesterolemic subjects.
Am J Clin Nutr, 69 (1999), pp. 403-410
[254.]
H.P.J. Hendriks, J.A. Weststrate, T. Van Vliet, G.W. Meijer.
Spreads enriched with three different levels of vegetable oil sterols and the degree of cholesterol lowering in normocholesterolemic and mildly hypercholesterolemic subjects.
Eur J Clin Nutr, 53 (1999), pp. 319-327
[255.]
P.J.H. Jones, F.Y. Ntanios, M. Raeni-Sarjaz, C.A. Vanstone.
Cholesterol-lowering efficacy of a sitostanol-containing phytosterol mixture with a prudent diet in hyperlipidemic men.
Am J Clin Nutr, 69 (1999), pp. 1144-1150
[256.]
K.C. Maki, M.H. Davidson, D.M. Umporowicz, E.J. Schaeffer, M.R. Dicklin, K.A. Ingram, et al.
Lipid responses to plant-sterol-enriched reduced-fat spreads incorporated into a National Cholesterol Education Program Step I diet.
Am J Clin Nutr, 74 (2001), pp. 33-43
[257.]
A. Tammi, T. Rönnemaa, H. Gylling, L. Rask-Nissilä, J. Viikari, J. Tuominen, et al.
Plant stanol ester margarine lowers serum total and low-density lipoprotein cholesterol concentrations of healthy children: The STRIP proyect.
J Pediatr, 136 (2000), pp. 503-510
[258.]
L. Normén, P. Dutta, A. Lia, H. Andersson.
Soy sterol esters and beta-sitostanol ester as inhibitors of cholesterol absortion in human small bowel.
Am J Clin Nutr, 71 (2000), pp. 908-913
[259.]
J. Plat, R.P. Mensink.
Vegetable oil based versus wood based stanol ester mixtures: effects on serum lipids and hemostatic factors in non-hypercholesterolemic subjects.
Atherosclerosis, 148 (2000), pp. 101-112
[260.]
H. Gylling, T.A. Miettinen.
Cholesterol reduction by different plant stanol mixtures and with variable fat intake.
Metabolism, 48 (1999), pp. 575-580
[261.]
M.A. Hallikainen, E.S. Sarkkinen, M.I. Uusitupa.
Plant stanol esters affect serum cholesterol concentrations of hypercholesterolemic men and women in a dose-dependent manner.
J Nutr, 130 (2000), pp. 767-776
[262.]
J. Plat, E.N.M. Van Onselen, M.M.A. Van Heugten, R.P. Mensink.
Effects on serum lipids, lipoproteins and fat soluble antioxidant concentrations of consumption frequency of margarines and shortenings enriched with plant stanol esters.
Eur J Clin Nutr, 54 (2000), pp. 671-677
[263.]
P.J.H. Jones, M. Raeini-Sarjaz, F.Y. Ntanios, C.A. Vanstone, J.Y. Feng, W.E. Parsons.
Modulation of plasma lipid levels and cholesterol kinetics by phytosterol versus phtostanol esters.
J Lipid Res, 41 (2000), pp. 697-705
[264.]
H. Gylling, P. Puska, E. Vartiainen, T.A. Miettinen, Retinol, D. vitamin.
carotene and alfa-tocopherol in serum of a moderately hypercholesterolemic population consuming sitostanol ester margarine.
Atherosclerosis, 145 (1999), pp. 279-285
[265.]
M.A. Hallikainen, E.S. Sarkkinen, M.I.J. Uusitupa.
Effects of a low-fat stanol ester enriched margarine on concentrations of serum carotenoids in subjects with elevated serum cholesterol concentrations.
Eur J Clin Nutr, 53 (1999), pp. 966-969
[266.]
M. Noakes, P. Clifton, F. Ntanios, W. Shrapnel, I. Record.
McInerney. An increase in dietary carotenoids when consuming plant sterols and stanols is effective inmantaining plasma carotenoid concentrations.
Am J Clin Nutr, 75 (2002), pp. 79-86
[267.]
J.M. Ordovás, J. López-Miranda, P. Mata, F. Pérez-Jiménez, A.H. Lichtenstein, E.J. Schaefer.
Gene-diet interactions in determining plasma lipid response to dietary intervention.
Atherosclerosis, 118 (1995), pp. 11-27
[268.]
J. López Miranda, J.M. Ordovás, P. Mata, A.H. Lichtenstein, B. Clevidence, J.T. Judd, et al.
Effect of apolipoprotein E phenothype on diet-induced plasma low density lipoprotein cholesterol lowering.
J Lipid Res, 35 (1994), pp. 1965-1975
[269.]
D. Zambón, E. Ros, E. Casals, C. Sanllehy, A. Bertomeu, I. Campero.
Effect of apolipoprotein E polymorphism on the serum lipid response to a hypolipidemic diet rich in monounsaturated fatty acids in patients with hypercholesterolemia and combined hyperlipidemia.
Am J Clin Nutr, 61 (1995), pp. 141-148
[270.]
S. Jansen, J.M. López Miranda, J.M. Ordovás, J.L. Zambrana, C. Marín, M.A. Ostos, et al.
Effect of 360 His mutation in apolipoprotein A-IV on plasma HDL-cholesterol response to dietary fat.
J Lipid Res, 38 (1997), pp. 1995-2002
[271.]
S. Jansen, J. López Miranda, J.M. Ordovás, J. Salas, C. Marín, P. Castro, et al.
Influence of the SstI polymorphism at the apolipoprotein C-III gene on plasma LDL colesterol response to dietary fat.
Am J Clin Nutr, 66 (1997), pp. 97-103
[272.]
López Miranda, J.M. Ordovás, A. Espino, C. Marín, J. Salas, F. López Segura, et al.
Human apolipoprotein A-I gen promoter mutation predicts plasma low density lipoprotein colesterol response to dietary fat in young males.
Lancet, 343 (1994), pp. 1246-1249
[273.]
J. López Miranda, J.M. Ordovás, F. Pérez Jiménez.
Interacción genes-dieta como determinante de las concentraciones plasmáticas de colesterol.
Med Clin (Barc), 111 (1998), pp. 546-551
[274.]
M.J. Tikkanen, C.F. Xu, T. Hämäläinen, P. Talmud, S. Sarna, J.K. Huttunen, et al.
Xbal polymorphism of the apolipoprotein B gene influences plasma lipid response diet intervention.
Clin Genet, 37 (1990), pp. 327-334
[275.]
J. López Miranda, J.M. Ordovás, M.A. Ostos, C. Marín, S. Jansen, J. Salas, et al.
Dietary fat clearance in normal subjects is modulated by genetic variation at the apolipoprotein B gene locus.
Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol, 17 (1997), pp. 1765-1773
[276.]
D. Adarraga, J.A. Moreno, P. Gómez, C. Marín, J. Carmona, E. Paz, et al.
Influencia del polimorfismo –844AG del gen del PAI-1 sobre sus niveles plasmáticos: interacción con la dieta.
Clin Invest Arterioscl, 13 (2001), pp. A77
[277.]
J.M. Moreno, P. Gómez, P. Pérez, C. Marín, E. Gavilán, J.A. Jiménez Perepérez, et al.
El polimorfismo C514T, en la región promotora del gen de la lipasa hepática, determina el metabolismo posprandial de las partículas remanentes de quilomicrones.
Clin Invest Arteriosc, 13 (2001), pp. A81
[278.]
P. Pérez, E. Gavilán, E. Paz, D. Adarraga, J.M. Ordovás, J.A. Jiménez Perepérez, et al.
El polimorfismo en el exón I del gen del SR-BI, interacciona con los cambios en el contenido de grasa de la alimentación en personas sanas.
Clin Invest Arterioscl, 13 (2001), pp. A82
[279.]
F. Rodríguez Artalejo, J.R. Banegas, M.A. Graciani.
R Hernández Vecino, Rey Calero J El consumo de alimentos y nutrientes en España en el período 1940-1988 Análisis de su consistencia con la dieta mediterránea.
Med Clin (Barc), 106 (1996), pp. 161-168
[280.]
F. Rodríguez Artalejo, M.A. Graciani, J.R. Banegas, J.M. Martín-Mo-reno, J. Sabaté, J. Rey.
El consumo de alimentos y nutrientes en España en el período 1940-1980 (y II). Un estudio comparativo de las principales fuentes de información sobre consumo alimentario.
Med Clin (Barc), 107 (1996), pp. 446-452
[281.]
O. Moreiras, A. Carbajal, M. Campo.
Tendencias de los hábitos alimentarios y estado nutricional en España. Resultados de las encuestas de presupuestos familiares (1964-1991).
Documento de consenso. Guías alimentarias para la población española, pp. 104-117
[282.]
V. Arija, J. Salas Salvadó, J. Fernández-Ballart, G. Cucó, C. Martí-Henneberg.
Consumo, hábitos alimentarios y estado nutricional de la población de Reus (VIII). Evolución de la ingestión de energía y nutrientes entre 1983 y 1993.
Med Clin (Barc), 106 (1996), pp. 45-50
[283.]
L. Serra Majem, L. Ribas, R. García Closas, J.M. Ramón, G. Salvador, A. Farran, et al.
Avaluació de l'estat nutricional de la població catalana (1992-93). Llibre blanc. Avaluació dels hàbits alimentaris, el consum d'aliments, energia i nutrients, i de l'estat nutricional mitjançant indicadors bioquímics i antropomètrics.
[284.]
J. Aranceta, C. Pérez, I. Marzana, I. Eguileor, L. González de Galdeano, J. Sáez de Buruaga.
Encuesta nutricional de la Comunidad Autónoma Vasca.
Documento de consenso. Guías alimentarias para la población española, pp. 47-65
[285.]
Encuesta de Nutrición de la Comunidad de Madrid.
Dirección General de Prevención y Promoción de la Salud. Documentos técnicos de salud pública n.o 18.
[286.]
Ministerio de Agricultura, Pesca y Alimentación.
La alimentación en España (1998).
[287.]
M.A. Rubio, F. Babín, R. López de Carrión, A. Rueda, A. Avellaneda, S. Valor, et al.
Hábitos alimentarios en la población urbana de Madrid. Estudio EPCUM (I): estimación de energía y macronutrientes.
Endocrinol Nutr, 47 (2000), pp. 205-210
[288.]
M.A. Rubio, F. Babín, R. López de Carrión, A. Rueda, A. Avellaneda, S. Valor, et al.
Hábitos alimentarios en la población urbana de Madrid. estudio EPCUM (II): consumo de alimentos.
Endocrinol Nutr, 47 (2000), pp. 211-214
[289.]
M.A. Rubio, J.A. Gutiérrez Fuentes, J.A. Gómez Gerique, M.D. Ballesteros, M.T. Montoya.
por el grupo DRECE. Estudio DRECE: Dieta y riesgo de enfermedades cardiovasculares en España. Hábitos nutricionales en la población española.
Endocrinol Nutr, 47 (2000), pp. 294-300
[290.]
M.D. Ballesteros, M.A. Rubio, J.A. Gutiérrez-Fuentes, J.A. Gómez-Gerique, A. Gómez de la Cámara, O. Pascual, et al.
y el DRECE-II group. Dietary habits and cardiovascular risk in the spanish population: the DRECE study (I).
Ann Nutr Metab, 44 (2000), pp. 108-114
[291.]
M.D. Ballesteros, M.A. Rubio, J.A. Gutiérrez-Fuentes, J.A. Gómez-Gerique.
Evaluación de la calidad de la dieta española en el estudio DRECE: adecuación a las recomendaciones de la Sociedad Española de Arteriosclerosis.
Clin Invest Arterioscler, 13 (2001), pp. 97-102
[292.]
Ministerio de Sanidad y Consumo, Sociedad Española de Cardiología y Sociedad Española de Arteriosclerosis.
Documento de consenso.
Control de la colesterolemia en España, 2000 Clin Invest Arterioscler, 12 (2000), pp. 125-152
[293.]
L. Serra-Majem, L. Ribas, G. Lloveras, L. Salleras.
Changing patterns of fat consumption in Spain.
Eur J Clin Nutr, 47 (1993), pp. 13-20
[294.]
L. Serra, L. Ribas.
Hábitos alimentarios y consumo de alimentos en España. Dieta mediterránea.
Nutrición y salud pública: métodos, bases científicas y aplicaciones, pp. 303-310
[295.]
F. Pérez-Llamas, J.A. López-Jiménez, J.F. Martín, S. Zamora.
Características de la grasa de algunos alimentos del grupo de las carnes y su relación con la salud.
Nutr Hosp, 13 (1998), pp. 95-98
[296.]
D.R. Buege, B.H. Ingham, D.W. Henderson, S.H. Watters, L.L. Borchert, P.M. Crump, et al.
A nationwide audit of the composition of pork and poultry cuts at retail.
J Food Comp Anal, 11 (1998), pp. 249-261
[297.]
N. Sharma, G. Gandemer, R. Goutefongea.
Comparative lipid composition of porcine muscles at different anatomical locations.
Meat Sci, 19 (1987), pp. 121-128
[298.]
M. Enser, K. Hallet, B. Hewitt, A.J. Fursey, J.D. Wood.
Fatty acid content and composition of english beef, lamb and pork at retail.
Meat Sci, 42 (1996), pp. 443-456
[299.]
L.W. Scott, J.K. Dunn, H.J. Pownall, D.J. Brauchi, M.C. Maman, A. Herd, et al.
Effects of beef and chicken consumption on plasma lipid levels in hypercholesterolemic men.
Arch Intern Med, 154 (1994), pp. 1261-1267
[300.]
M.H. Davidson, D. Hunninghake, K.C. Maki, P.O. Kwiterovich, S. Kafonek.
Comparison of the effects of lean red meat vs lean white meat on serum lipid levels among free-living persons with hypercholesterolemia: a long-term randomized clinical trial.
Arch Intern Med, 159 (1999), pp. 1331-1338
[301.]
M.A. Rubio, L. Cabrerizo, S. Romeo, M.T. Montoya, J.A. Gómez-Gerique, R. Carretero, et al.
Estudio comparativo aleatorio y cruzado entre el consumo de carne magra de cerdo vs ternera en el perfil lipídico en sujetos sanos.
Endocrinología, 47 (2000), pp. A80
[302.]
A.P. Simopoulus, A. Leaf, N. Salen Jr..
Essentiality of and recommended dietary intakes for omega-6 and omega-3 fatty acids.
Ann Nutr Metab, 43 (1999), pp. 127-130
[303.]
M. Sugano, F. Hirahara.
Polyunsaturated fatty acids in the food chain in Japan.
Am J Clin Nutr, 71 (2000), pp. 189-196
[304.]
P.M. Kris-Etherton, D.S. Taylor, S. Yu-Poth, P. Huth, K. Moriarty, V. Fishell, et al.
Polyunsaturated fatty acids in the food chain in the United States.
Am J Clin Nutr, 71 (2000), pp. 179-188
[305.]
Sanders TAB.
Polyunsaturated fatty acids in the food chain in Europe.
Am J Clin Nutr, 71 (2000), pp. 176-178
[306.]
A. Carbajal, C. Cuadrado, C. Núñez, B. Beltrán, G. Toledano, O. Moreiras.
Estudio TRANSFAIR (II). Ingesta de ácidos grasos –cis y trans-con la dieta total en España.
Clin Invest Arterioscler, 12 (2000), pp. 256-262
[307.]
J. Boatella, M. Rafecas, R. Codony.
Isomeric trans fatty acids in the spanish diet and their relationship with changes in fat intake patterns.
Eur J Clin Nutr, 47 (1993), pp. 62-65
[308.]
K.G. Gey.
Inverse correlation between plasma vitamin E and mortality from ischemic heart disease in cross-cultural epidemiology.
Am J Clin Nutr, 53 (1991), pp. 326-334
[309.]
L. Kohlmeier.
Lycopene and myocardial infarction risk in the EURAMIC Study.
Am J Epidemiol, 146 (1997), pp. 618-626
[310.]
D. Steinberg.
Is there a potential therapeutic role for vitamin E or other antioxidants in atherosclerosis?.
Curr Opin Lipidol, 11 (2000), pp. 603-607
[311.]
I. Jialal, M. Traber, S. Devaraj.
Is there a vitamin E paradox?.
Curr Opin Lipidol, 12 (2001), pp. 49-53
[312.]
I.M. Graham, P. O'Callaghan.
The role of folic acid in the prevention of cardiovascular disease.
Curr Opin Lipidol, 11 (2000), pp. 577-587
[313.]
W.G. Christen, U.A. Ajan, R.J. Glynn, C.H. Hennekens.
Blood levels of homocysteine and increased risks of cardiovascular disease Causal or casual?.
Arch Intern Med, 160 (2000), pp. 422-434
[314.]
K.D. Croft.
Antioxidant effects of plant phenolic compounds.
Antioxidants in human health and disease, pp. 109-121
[315.]
S. Samman, P.M. Lyons Wall, E. Farmakalidis.
Flavonoids and other phytochemicals in relation to coronary heart disease.
Antioxidants in human health and disease, pp. 175-187
[316.]
B. Fuhrman, M. Aviram.
Flavonoids protect LDL from oxidation and attenuate atherosclerosis.
Curr Opin Lipidol, 12 (2001), pp. 41-48
[317.]
M.S. Kurzer, X. Xu.
Dietary phytoestrogens.
Annu Rev Nutr, 17 (1997), pp. 353-381
[318.]
L. Serra Majem, L. Ribas, R. Tresserras, J. Ngo, L.L. Salleras.
How could changes in diet explain changes in coronary heart disease mortality in Spain? The spanish paradox.
Am J Clin Nutr, 61 (1995), pp. 1351-1359
[319.]
F.B. Hu, E.B. Rimm, M.J. Stampfer, A. Ascherio, D. Spiegelman, W.C. Willet.
Prospective study of major dietary patterns and risk of coronary heart disease in men.
Am J Clin Nutr, 72 (2000), pp. 912-921
[320.]
F.B. Hu.
Dietary pattern analysis: a new direction in nutritional epidemiology.
Curr Opin Lipidol, 13 (2002), pp. 3-9
[321.]
Hipócrates.
Aforismos.
Copyright © 2001. Sociedad Española de Endocrinología y Nutrición
Opciones de artículo
Herramientas
es en pt

¿Es usted profesional sanitario apto para prescribir o dispensar medicamentos?

Are you a health professional able to prescribe or dispense drugs?

Você é um profissional de saúde habilitado a prescrever ou dispensar medicamentos