This research explores the indirect associations of caring for bliss to academic procrastination via the mediating effects of academic self-efficacy. College students (N = 373) from the United States participated in this three-wave longitudinal study. Surveys were administered with roughly five weeks of interval. Structural equation modeling shows that caring for bliss has been linked to later decreased levels of academic procrastination via its association with higher academic self-efficacy, which in turn, relates to less procrastination. These findings underscore the protective role of deliberately caring for well-being against maladaptive academic behaviors.
Esta investigación explora las asociaciones indirectas del cuidado por la felicidad hacia la procrastinación académica, a través de los efectos mediadores de la autoeficacia académica. En este estudio longitudinal de tres fases han participado estudiantes universitarios (N = 373) de los Estados Unidos. Las encuestas se administran con un intervalo de aproximadamente cinco semanas. El modelado de ecuaciones estructurales muestra que el interés por el bienestar (caring for bliss) se vincula con una disminución posterior de los niveles de procrastinación académica a través de su asociación con una mayor autoeficacia académica, la cual, a su vez, se relaciona con una menor tendencia a procrastinar. Estos hallazgos subrayan el papel protector del cuidado deliberado del bienestar frente a los comportamientos académicos desadaptativos.
The rapid and evolving nature of technological innovations leaves students with considerable concerns related to managing excessive academic stress (Avci, 2026) and finding an optimal approach to managing time (Chen & Lyu, 2024). With the unpredictable psychological issues that students have been facing, it is now more important than ever to explore the educational contexts’ role in promoting students’ mental health functioning. To the extent that it advocates for building school contexts’ direct impacts in cultivating students’ well-being skills, positive education can contribute to developing social ecologies that facilitate positive academic functioning and psychological wellness (Seligman et al., 2009).
Students’ pursuit of academic accomplishment primarily depends on how well they can expend time and effort dealing with a wide range of academic activities. However, some students struggle to prioritize more urgent and important academic tasks over non-academic activities. Academic procrastination, defined as the voluntary delay of intended academic tasks despite foreseeable negative outcomes (Senécal et al., 1995), is pervasive among university students. It negatively affects academic performance, mental health, and overall well-being (Grunschel et al., 2016; Habelrih & Hicks, 2015; Sirois & Pychyl, 2016). Estimates suggest that between 48% and 97% of post-secondary students engage in academic procrastination to some extent (He, 2017; Oram & Rogers, 2022). Given its deleterious educational impacts, addressing academic procrastination is crucial for improving student outcomes.
Prior studies have identified psychological correlates of academic procrastination, which include poor self-efficacy (Wang et al., 2016), fear of failure (Dinç & Ekşi, 2019), lower academic engagement (Cutipa-Flores et al., 2025), emotion regulation difficulties (Rad et al., 2025), high academic anxiety (Jin et al., 2024), greater academic stress (Cong et al., 2024), poorer emotional intelligence (Ghaleb & Sundram, 2023), lower psychological capital (Asfa et al., 2018), and poorer conscientiousness (Cheng et al., 2023). There is also evidence linking one’s orientation to happiness –whether one pursues happiness to satisfy pleasure or to experience a purpose-driven life and personal growth– to lower procrastination tendencies (Chen & Zeng, 2022). Although these findings indicate that optimal psychological functioning and well-being resources (e.g., happiness orientation and psychological capital) can serve as protective factors against the detrimental effects of academic procrastination, studies on specific psychological factors that relate to poorer academic procrastination remain elusive.
In this investigation, we explored the role of caring for bliss and academic self-efficacy in academic procrastination among college students in the United States. Caring for bliss has been conceptualized as one’s capacity to cultivate an inner sense of joy and authentic happiness based on experiencing peace of mind and a compassionate heart (Rudaz et al., 2020). Unlike the hedonic orientation–that covers an approach to happiness by fulfilling pleasure and avoiding pain (Diener, 2000)– the eudaimonic orientation encompasses an approach to well-being by living a sustainable life by living in ways that are concordant with personal values (Waterman, 1993), pursuing optimal dimensions of personal and social functioning (Ryff & Keyes, 1995), and basic psychological needs (Ryan & Deci, 2000). Rudaz et al. (2020) have also argued that caring for bliss differ from such broader well-being approaches as the former involves active behaviors that facilitate achievement of long-term or everlasting joy or happiness. Moreover, they conjectured that caring for bliss is characterized by mindfulness –moment-to-moment and non-judgmental awareness and concentration to the present moment (Kabat-Zinn, 2005) – and self-compassion –showing kindness to oneself in the midst of challenging or painful moments (Neff & Beretvas, 2013)– as such qualities enable individuals to direct efforts to search happiness within rather than outside the self. Put simply, individuals with more caring for bliss turn to have internalized or self-directed strategies in their quest to achieve a sustainably happy life, cohering with a relatively eudaimonic approach in conceptualizing well-being.
Past investigations investigated the psychometric properties and correlates of caring for bliss. In a sample of young adults in the United States, greater caring for bliss has been linked to more life satisfaction, perceived happiness, and psychological well-being (Rudaz et al., 2020). Further, caring for bliss had comparable meanings and was related to lower negatively valenced mental health dimensions (e.g., anxiety and depression) across undergraduate students in the United States and the Philippines (Datu et al., 2024). Caring for bliss also synergistically interacts with other psychological resources (e.g., mindfulness and self-compassion) to protect students against burnout (Rudaz et al., 2023). Indeed, these findings indicate that caring for bliss can facilitate optimal psychological functioning. However, little is known about the links between caring for bliss and effective learning processes and outcomes.
There is reason to believe that caring for bliss might be associated with more optimal learning indices, such as greater academic self-efficacy – defined as belief in one's ability to succeed in academic activities (Bandura, 1978; Honicke & Broadbent, 2016; Schunk & Pajares, 2002) – and less academic procrastination. For example, prior studies have shown that students with more well-being tend to report more intrinsic reasons for learning (Datu et al., 2020; Datu et al., 2022), academic engagement (Chen et al., 2023), academic self-efficacy (Ho, 2025; Zhang & Chen, 2025), and self-regulated learning strategies (Mega et al., 2014). Importantly, broaden-and-build theory (Fredrickson, 2001) has emphasized the critical role of well-being states in shaping adaptive mindsets and building a wide range of physical, social, and psychological resources over time. If well-being is indeed synergistic with effective learning (Seligman et al., 2009), it is likely that students with more caring for bliss might experience greater academic self-efficacy and lower procrastination.
Against this backdrop of studies on the psychological and mental health benefits of caring for bliss and related well-being indices, this study aims to examine the longitudinal associations of caring for bliss with subsequent academic procrastination via the mediating role of academic self-efficacy among undergraduate students in the United States.
Caring for bliss and effective learningAs with the general thrusts of positive education on the key ramifications of happiness for students’ learning and achievement (Seligman et al., 2009), understanding how well-being facilitates effective learning has emerged as a critical scientific concern for many scientists, practitioners, and policy makers in school contexts. The scientific foundations of happiness have usually been investigated from two diverse philosophical perspectives: the hedonic and the eudaimonic (e.g., Delle Fave et al., 2011; Rudaz et al., 2020). The hedonic approach centers on pleasure attainment and pain avoidance, emphasizing happiness as a result of external stimuli or sensory stimulations. In contrast, the eudaimonic perspective, which aligns more closely with the Buddhist view of genuine happiness (Thich Nhat Hanh, 2008), highlights the importance of living in accordance with one’s true self, personal growth, meaning, and acting in harmony with the collective welfare (Rudaz et al., 2020). Distinguishing these traditions is crucial for conceptualising the "caring for bliss" construct, as it draws from both but ultimately transcends them.
Caring for bliss encompasses an unlimited, everlasting inner joy or genuine happiness, undisturbed by external circumstances (Rudaz et al., 2020). It is a joy based on a peaceful state of mind and a compassionate heart. In this context, the notion of caring for bliss refers to active practices or behaviors aimed at cultivating inner joy or genuine happiness (Rudaz et al., 2020). Inspired by Buddhist teachings on genuine happiness (Compson, 2018; Dambrun & Ricard, 2011; Wallace, 2005), caring for bliss emphasizes maintaining a peaceful state of mind and a compassionate heart. Although the caring for bliss construct represents a Buddhist lens to conceptualize genuine happiness (Rudaz et al., 2020), there is a reason to argue for its generalizability to individuals in Western societies as contemporary literature –such as eudaimonic well-being (Ryff & Keyes, 1995)– has pointed out that experiencing caring for bliss involves embracing specific Western-adopted well-being practices such as: (1) mindfulness or deliberating diverting attention to the here-and-now or immediate experiences in life (Kabat-Zinn, 1990, 2005); and (2) self-compassion or demonstrating affection and genuine care to oneself even in the midst of setbacks, failures, and unpleasant life circumstances (Neff, 2003). This approach advocates generating feelings of happiness in the present, searching for lasting happiness within oneself, appreciating what one has, and following the deepest desires of one’s heart (Rudaz et al., 2020), as inspired by the teachings of Thich Nhat Hanh (2008, 2015). As the caring for bliss construct partly resembles the eudaimonic perspective in that it characterizes well-being as individuals’ proactive efforts to experience long-lasting or relatively enduring happiness. Prior research (Datu et al., 2024) has demonstrated that the caring for bliss construct had comparable or equivalent meanings among undergraduate students in the United States and the Philippines, providing promising insights into the cross-national generalizability of caring for bliss in diverse cultural contexts.
Well-being, self-efficacy, and academic procrastinationSeveral studies have shown that students’ happiness matters for a wide range of effective learning outcomes (e.g., Datu et al., 2020; Datu et al., 2022). For example, a systematic review indicates that happiness promotes positive emotions, which in turn facilitates creative thinking and resilience, directly impacting academic success (David et al., 2022). Similarly, Datu et al. (2020) have found that positive emotion was related to higher academic motivation, engagement, and achievement among Filipino high school students. Datu et al. (2022) showed that positive emotion was related to increased academic motivation and academic outcomes among Chinese college students. Importantly, prior studies have demonstrated that students with higher well-being reported higher academic self-efficacy beliefs (Ho, 2025; Zhang & Chen, 2025).
Furthermore, happiness plays a crucial role in reducing academic procrastination. Students with more happiness tend to procrastinate less (Naderi et al., 2021; Rasool et al., 2024) as they tend to proactively engage in academic activities (Naderi et al., 2021). Conversely, those who do not experience well-being are often susceptible to procrastination, which fosters feelings of inadequacy and stress, ultimately leading to a decline in both academic performance and life satisfaction (Malkoç & Mutlu, 2018; Rasool et al., 2024; Syapira et al., 2022). However, we do not know of any investigation that explored the association of caring for bliss with academic procrastination.
Caring for bliss, self-efficacy beliefs, and academic procrastinationSelf-efficacy, a central concept in Social Cognitive Theory (SCT; Bandura, 1991, 2001), is defined as an individual's belief in their ability to organize and execute the actions required to manage prospective tasks (Bandura, 2001). It influences various domains, including academic performance, motivation, and emotional regulation (e.g., Putra & Soetjiningsih, 2023). In this framework, individuals with high self-efficacy are more likely to approach challenges with confidence and resilience, enhancing their likelihood of success. In contrast, those with low self-efficacy may avoid challenges and experience higher levels of anxiety when faced with difficult tasks (Attia, 2020). Consistent with this perspective, we propose the following hypothesis:
Regarding academic procrastination, students with higher levels of self-efficacy showed reduced tendencies to procrastinate (e.g., Klassen et al., 2008; Liu et al., 2020; Seo, 2008). Self-efficacy might also play a significant role in the relationship between happiness and academic procrastination (Chen & Zeng, 2022; Rasool et al., 2024). For instance, Rasool et al. (2024) found that increased happiness can lead to better academic behaviors, thereby reducing procrastination. Students who engage in activities fostering eudaimonic happiness exhibit increased persistence in task completion, which minimizes procrastination and enhances academic achievement (Chen & Zeng, 2022). Moreover, students’ happiness and positive emotions have been linked to higher academic motivation, greater engagement, and improved academic achievement among both Filipino high school students and Chinese college students (Datu et al., 2020; Datu et al., 2022), highlighting the important role of happiness in supporting effective learning and educational outcomes.
Despite accumulating evidence showing that self-efficacy is an important factor in the relationship between happiness and academic procrastination (Chen & Zeng, 2022; Rasool et al., 2024), few studies have explored the effect of happiness from the perspective of inner and genuine happiness. Particularly, there is a lack of research examining this relationship from a Buddhist perspective on happiness (caring for bliss) using longitudinal data from college students.
The present studyIn summary, existing studies have shown that individuals with higher perceptions of their capacity to generate inner feelings of lasting happiness reported greater psychosocial wellness (Datu et al., 2024; Rudaz et al., 2020; Rudaz et al., 2023) and less school burnout (Rudaz et al., 2024). Despite growing evidence about the links of well-being to optimal academic functioning, investigations on the academic benefits of caring for bliss remain elusive. Given the distinct conceptual characteristics of the caring for bliss construct relative to broader perspectives in well-being (e.g., hedonic and eudaimonic approaches), it is critical to explore the distinct ways that caring for bliss relate to positive academic outcomes. Specifically, the following goals are examined in this investigation: (1) To examine the longitudinal associations of cultivating happiness with subsequent academic self-efficacy and academic procrastination; and (2) To assess the mediating role of academic self-efficacy in the links of caring for bliss on academic procrastination.
Further, age and race were used as covariates of caring for bliss in the model, because prior studies have shown that age and race were related to happiness (Cobb et al., 2020; Frijters & Beatton, 2012; Toshkov, 2022). As with our review of related theories and prior findings on how caring for bliss relates to academic functioning and well-being outcomes, the following hypotheses (H) were proposed: (H1) Caring for bliss at Time 1 (T1) will be directly associated with lower academic procrastination at T3; (H2) Caring for bliss at T1 will be directly associated with higher academic self-efficacy at T2; (H3) T2 academic self-efficacy will be associated with lower T3 academic procrastination; and (H4) T2 academic self-efficacy will mediate the relationship between T1 caring for bliss and T3 academic procrastination.
MethodParticipantsParticipants were college students in the College of Human Sciences at a southeastern university in the United States. On three separate occasions, each spanning a 5-week interval, data were collected. At Time 1 (T1), 643 students participated in the survey. The number of respondents decreased to 548 at Time 2 (T2) and further to 470 at Time 3 (T3). Of these, 373 students consistently provided data for all three rounds, which were used for data analysis in this study. Among these consistent respondents, there were 346 females and 27 males (see Table 1).
Demographic profile of participants (n = 373)
| Frequency | Percentage | |
|---|---|---|
| Gender | ||
| Male | 27 | 7.239 |
| Female | 346 | 92.761 |
| Frequencies for T1 Racial/ethnic background | Frequency | Percent |
|---|---|---|
| White/Caucasian/European American | 242 | 64.879 |
| Latino/Hispanic | 63 | 16.890 |
| African American/Black | 33 | 8.847 |
| Asian/Pacific Islander | 18 | 4.826 |
| Middle Eastern | 5 | 1.340 |
| Other | 9 | 2.413 |
| African American & White | 1 | 0.268 |
| Afro-Caribbean, European, & Afro-Latino | 1 | 0.268 |
| Asian/Italian | 1 | 0.268 |
| Jewish | 1 | 0.268 |
| Multiracial | 1 | 0.268 |
| White and Black | 1 | 0.268 |
| Both African American and white | 1 | 0.268 |
| White/Asian | 1 | 0.268 |
| White/Hispanic | 1 | 0.268 |
| Prefer not to say | 3 | 0.804 |
| Total | 373 | 100 |
As with conventional guidelines on determining sample size for structural equation models that required around 5 participants for each parameter tested in the structural model (Worthington & Whittaker, 2006), our final sample size (i.e., 373) has sufficiently met the required sample for such analytic approaches. A power analysis for the SEM using the RMSEA-based sample size calculator (Arifin, 2025, 2026) for a model with 17 items loading on three factors, assuming an RMSEA of 0.05, a two-tailed significance level of 0.05, and desired power of 0.90, with a dropout rate of 10%, the required sample size, at least 204 participants are needed. Based on these criteria, we believe that our investigation is adequately powered, lowering the likelihood of generating biased parameter estimates and increased Type II errors.
In terms of ethnicity, the majority of participants were White (n = 242, 64.9%), followed by Hispanic (n = 63, 16.9%), Black (n = 33, 8.8%), and Asian/Pacific Islander (n = 18, 4.8%). Additionally, 4.5% reported other ethnicities (n = 17). The average age of the participants was 19.93 years (SD = 1.47) at T1, 20.04 years (SD = 1.48) at T2, and 20.18 years (SD = 1.50) at T3.
InstrumentsCaring for blissThe 4-item Caring for Bliss Scale (Rudaz et al., 2020) was used to assess participants’ perception of their capacity to cultivate genuine and lasting feelings of happiness and bliss at Time 1. Items were measured using a 5-point Likert-type response format with 0 indicating never and 4 suggesting regularly. Sample items include “I can generate a feeling of happiness in the here and now.” and “I take time to acknowledge the things for which I am grateful.”. Cronbach’s alpha coefficient for the scale in this study was .80.
Academic self-efficacyThe 8-item Academic Self-efficacy Scale (Chemers et al., 2001) was used to assess perceived confidence in performing academic activities at T2. Items were marked using a 7-point Likert-type response format with 1 suggesting very untrue and 7 indicating very true. Sample items include “I know how to schedule my time to accomplish my tasks,” and “I am very capable of succeeding at this college.” Cronbach’s alpha coefficient in this study was .90.
Academic procrastinationThe 5-item Short Form of the Academic Procrastination Scale (McCloskey, 2011) was used to assess participants’ perceived capacity to delay performance of important academic tasks at T3. Items were rated using a 5-item scale with 1 indicating disagree and 5 indicating agree. Sample items include “I put off projects until the last minute” and “I get distracted by other more fun things when I am supposed to work on schoolwork”. Cronbach’s alpha coefficient for the scale in this study was .95.
ProcedureBefore administering the first survey, the third author secured approval from the Institutional Review Board of Florida State University and Human Research Ethics Committee of the Education University of Hong Kong. Participants were informed that their participation was voluntary, and they could withdraw from the survey at any time without any penalty or negative consequences on their academic performance. Participants filled in an online survey using the Survey Monkey platform in each wave of data collection. There was an approximate five-week interval between survey administrations. Their participation was one option to earn a small amount of extra course credit. All responses were kept confidential and were used solely for research purposes.
Data analysesWe calculated descriptive statistics for the study variables. Next, we computed correlations to explore the relationships between key variables. Then, we calculated Cronbach’s alpha coefficient for each scale to assess its internal consistency. Fourthly, confirmatory factor analyses (CFA) were conducted to evaluate the model fit indices of the three scales. Fifthly, Structural equational modeling (SEM) was used to investigate the longitudinal associations of T1 caring for bliss on T3 academic procrastination via the mediating effect of T2 academic self-efficacy. In this model, age and race (White vs. non-White) were included as covariates.
To generate estimates of T1 caring for bliss’ direct and indirect effects on T3 academic procrastination, we used the "model indirect" command in Mplus 8.10. We adopted the maximum likelihood approach and conducted a bias-corrected bootstrapping analysis with 5,000 bootstrapped samples to estimate the 95% confidence interval (CI). Unlike the Sobel test, the bootstrap approach provides statistical information (i.e., standard error and bias estimates, CIs, and hypothesis tests) without assuming a normal distribution and equal variances (Hesterberg, 2011; Preacher & Hayes, 2008). Mediation effects were considered statistically significant if the CI excluded zero. The following indices (including their cutoff values) were used to evaluate the model fit: (a) chi-square, (b) CFI > .90, (c) RMSEA < .08, and (d) SRMR < .08 (Browne & Cudeck, 1992; Hu & Bentler, 1999).
ResultsDescriptive statistics and correlational analysesTable 1 provides information on the demographics of the sample studied. The descriptive statistics of the study variables and the correlations among them are shown in Table 2. Results from the correlation analyses indicate that T1 caring for bliss and T2 academic self-efficacy were significantly and positively associated with each other at a moderate to high level (r = .435, p < .001, based on the criteria of Cohen, 1988; Dancey & Reidy, 2011; Field, 2013). In contrast, T3 academic procrastination was negatively associated with T1 caring for bliss and T2 academic self-efficacy at low to moderate levels (r = -.27 to -.425, p < .001).
Descriptive statistics and correlations among study variables
| Variables | M | SD | 1 | 2 | 3 | CR | ω | AVE | α |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1. T1 caring for bliss | 15.55 | 2.86 | – | 0.808 | 0.799 | 0.514 | 0.824 | ||
| 2. T2 academic self-efficacy | 45.80 | 6.965 | 0.43*** | – | 0.893 | 0.897 | 0.536 | 0.895 | |
| 3. T3 academic procrastination | 12.61 | 6.024 | -0.27*** | -0.43*** | – | 0.940 | 0.947 | 0.767 | 0.946 |
Note. *p < .05. **p < .01. ***p < .001.
CFAs were conducted separately for the three scales. For the T1 Caring for Bliss scale, the model yielded a significant chi-square difference test, χ²(2) = 12.14, p = .002, with CFI = .979, TLI = .937, SRMR = .024, and RMSEA = .117, 90% CI [.060, .183]. All such fit indices but RMSEA indicate acceptable fit. For the T2 Academic Self-Efficacy scale, the model had good fit based on the following fit indices: χ²(16) = 45.69, p < .001, CFI = .984, TLI = .972, SRMR = .026, and RMSEA = .071, 90% CI [.047, .095]. For the T3 Academic Procrastination scale, the model had good fit as with the following fit indices: χ²(4) = 11.01, p < .025, CFI = .996, TLI = .990, SRMR = .009, and RMSEA = .069, 90% CI [.021, .118]. As the measurement models yielded acceptable fit indices, the subsequent section elaborates the findings of SEM.
Structural equation modelingSEM via maximum likelihood was carried out to investigate the direct and indirect links (via T2 academic self-efficacy) of T1 caring for bliss to T3 academic procrastination, when controlling for age and race (White = 1; other types of races = 0). The fit indices of this model were acceptable, χ2(148, N = 373) = 525.98, CFI = .912, RMSEA = .083 (with 90% CI [.075, .091], SRMR = .054 (refer to Figure 1). Results indicated that whereas T1 caring for bliss had a significant and positive link to T2 academic self-efficacy (β = .477, p < .001), it did not have a significant and direct longitudinal association with T3 academic procrastination. In contrast, T2 academic self-efficacy had a significant negative association with T3 academic procrastination (β = -.400, p < .001). Neither of the covariates (i.e., age and race) had significant relationships with T1 caring for bliss.
Structural equation model among T1 caring for bliss, T2 academic self-efficacy, and T3 academic procrastination.
Note. *p < .05. **p < .01. ***p < .001. A solid line indicates a significant direct path, and a dashed line indicates a non-significant path. Observed indicators were not included in the diagram for visual clarity.
We also estimated the indirect effects of T1 caring for bliss on T3 academic procrastination via T2 academic self-efficacy using a bias-corrected bootstrapping analysis at 95% confidence interval (CI) using 5,000 bootstrapped resamples. Results showed that T1 caring for bliss had significant indirect effects on T3 academic procrastination (indirect effect = -0.191; 95% CI [-0.284, -0.121]), with the confidence intervals not including zero, indicating that the indirect effect is statistically significant (Preacher & Hayes, 2008). Figure 1 presents the schematic diagram showing the associations among T1 caring for bliss, T2 academic self-efficacy, and T3 academic procrastination.
DiscussionPrior investigations concentrated on identifying the role that caring for bliss plays in students’ well-being and psychological functioning. Our research augments the extant scholarly landscape on the caring for bliss construct by showing how caring for bliss relates to subsequent academic self-efficacy and academic procrastination. This section elaborates the theoretical and practical implications of our findings in the fields of educational psychology and well-being science. It also documents our investigation’s methodological shortcomings and potential future research directions.
Caring for bliss, self-efficacy beliefs, and academic procrastinationContrary to Hypothesis 1, our study showed absence of association between T1 caring for bliss and T3 academic procrastination. This result indicates that students’ capacity to generate feelings of genuine happiness may not relate to changes in tendency to postpone time-bound academically important activities over time. It is likely that caring for bliss may not directly predict academic procrastination as there might be other internal psychological processes that mediate the influence of caring for bliss on academic outcomes. In this study, we demonstrated that caring for bliss indirectly relates to academic procrastination through its association with greater academic self-efficacy.
Our findings showed that students with more caring for bliss reported higher subsequent academic self-efficacy, which confirmed Hypothesis 2. These results indicate that students with more proactive efforts to search for inner joy tend to report higher perceived ability to deal with academic tasks. It is plausible that caring for bliss may relate to better confidence in learning, as past studies have confirmed that happier students are more likely to have greater confidence in accomplishing academic activities (Ho, 2025; Zhang & Chen, 2025). This result also coheres with prior perspectives that emphasize the role of desirable physiological states (e.g., positive emotions) in fostering higher self-efficacy beliefs (Bandura, 1997).
As expected, our research showed that students with more confidence in accomplishing academic activities tend to report lower academic procrastination, which supported Hypothesis 3 and previous findings (Klassen et al., 2008; Liu et al., 2020; Seo, 2008). Students with higher self-efficacy beliefs in studying are less likely to procrastinate as they tend to show deeper involvement in learning activities (Svartdal et al., 2022) and a positive attitude towards studying (Chen & Zeng, 2022). Furthermore, students with more confidence in studying might exhibit greater tolerance for temporally remote academic tasks so they are able to effectively manage time and avoid maladaptive study strategies.
The mediating role of academic self-efficacyIn addition, this investigation showed that Time 1 caring for bliss was indirectly associated with lower Time 3 academic procrastination through its link to higher Time 2 academic self-efficacy, confirming Hypothesis 4. This result implies that students with more inclination to experience inner happiness, personal growth, and meaning tend to report lower academic procrastination as they might show more confidence in performing academic activities – a protective resource that facilitates more adaptive coping to a wide range of academic responsibilities and tasks. Our findings are consistent with past research results on how well-being promotes effective learning processes such as intrinsic academic motivation (Datu et al., 2022), academic self-efficacy (Zhang & Chen, 2025), and academic engagement (Chen et al., 2023).
In general, our research aligns with evidence showcasing the critical role of happiness and theoretically related constructs (e.g., positive emotions and caring for bliss) in building academic resources (Fredrickson, 2001) and outcomes that characterize well-being and optimal psychological functioning (Jayawickreme et al., 2012). Specifically, caring for bliss might shield students against experiencing maladaptive study behaviors such as academic procrastination by activating approach-related cognitive processes (e.g., broadened mindsets or open-mindedness) and promoting their confidence in performing academic tasks. This is one of the first investigations to demonstrate the potential contributions of caring for bliss on students’ learning processes and academic wellness.
Limitations and future research directionsHowever, the present study is not without limitations. Given the use of a correlational design to explore the links among caring for bliss, academic self-efficacy and academic procrastination, our results do not permit causal inferences about the role of caring for bliss in students’ learning. Future research using experimental designs is needed to examine the effects of caring for bliss on key learning processes and outcomes. Since this research did not adopt a full longitudinal panel approach that controls for auto-regressor effects when estimating the cross-temporal associations of caring for bliss with academic self-efficacy and procrastination, it is not plausible to generate more rigorous insights into the complex links of such constructs over time. This methodological shortcoming can be addressed by using full blown cross-lagged panel modelling designs with longer and relatively equal interval at each wave of survey administration to examine reciprocal relationships between caring for bliss and adaptive learning outcomes. As we recruited our sample from undergraduate students –largely dominated by females that accounted for approximately 93% of the total number of participants– in the United States, this constrains the generalizability of our findings. In future studies, conducting investigations with undergraduate students and non-student samples with more balanced gender profiles from non-American and non-Western societies can generate more culturally nuanced insights on the psychological and academic benefits of caring for bliss. Further, we acknowledge that the use of self-report measures of our explanatory and outcome variables can inflate the likelihood of social desirability and other methodological biases (e.g., common method variance) in this investigation. Future research can address such limitations by turning to more objective measures (e.g., peer-report format of caring for bliss and performance-based assessment of academic procrastination) or multi-informant – by combining self- and other-report tools– approaches in assessing caring for bliss and procrastination tendencies. In addition, as the effects of previously identified predictors –such as personality (Kokkinos et al., 2023; Ljubin-Golub et al., 2019), emotional intelligence (Caballero García et al., 2025), anxiety (Gökçen & Oğuz Gökçen, 2025), academic workload (Jebasingh et al., 2025), and social support (Chen et al., 2025; Zheng et al., 2023)– were not controlled in this investigation, future research can measure and add such constructs as covariates in structural models to explore how caring for bliss contributes to procrastination and similar learning outcomes over time.
Theoretical and practical implicationsNotwithstanding the above limitations, our research has theoretical and practical implications. Although prior research findings showcase the mental health payoffs associated with caring for bliss (Datu et al., 2024; Rudaz et al., 2020; Rudaz et al., 2024), the scientific evidence on its academic benefits remains unknown. This study uniquely contributes to existing positive psychology literature by demonstrating the links between caring for bliss, academic self-efficacy and academic procrastination. As we showed that students with more caring for bliss tend to report higher confidence in performing academic activities and lower procrastinating tendencies, psychologists and mental health practitioners in higher education contexts are encouraged to design and implement prevention-oriented programs that aim to cultivate well-being skills and related self-care strategies to empower university students. Broadly speaking, this research coheres with prevailing perspectives (Oades et al., 2011; Seligman et al., 2009) on the importance of building educational contexts that champion students’ academic success and psychological wellness.
ConclusionExisting literature has showcased the psychological and mental health benefits of caring for bliss. However, the literature on how caring for bliss matters for key learning processes and outcomes remains elusive. This investigation contributes to broader psychological perspective on the academic benefits of caring for bliss construct by showing how caring for bliss relates to lower subsequent academic procrastination via its link to higher academic self-efficacy. Our findings underscore the importance of identifying psychological resources that protect university students against maladaptive academic behaviors like procrastination.
CRediT authorship contribution statementJesus Alfonso D. Datu: conceptualization, writing – original draft, writing – review & editing. Zhang Jiahong: data management, methodology, formal analysis, writing – original draft. Frank D. Fincham: writing – original draft, writing – review & editing.
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